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* EUROPE. 292 EUROPE. •Cavour (q.v.) ; in Germany it was carried through by the Prussian Premier, Bismarck (q.v.). Aus- tria was the great obstacle to both movements, and it took two great wars to expel the Austrians from Italy and from Germany. It was not in the interest cither of Russia or of France that strong States should be established in central Europe; but Russia remained neutral, because, remember ing the aid given to Austria in 1*40. the Czar bitterly resented the 'ungrateful' attitude as- sumed by Austria during the Crimean War; and Napoleon III. (q.v.) assisted Sardinia and en- couraged Prussia, partly in expectation of petty advantages, partly by reason of an unpractical zeal for the 'principle of nationality.' In 1859 France and Sardinia defeated Austria, and Sar- dinia obtained Lombardy. France was paid for her services by the cession of Savoy and Nice. Simultaneously all the small States of North Italy and the northern provinces of the States of the Church established revolutionary govern- ments and demanded union with Sardinia. In 1860 Garibaldi (q.v.) overthrew the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and placed all Italy south of Rome in the hands of the King of Sardinia. In 18C1 the Kingdom of Italy was established, in- cluding all of the peninsula except Venice and Rome. During these movements Prussia stood ina. tive. In 1863 Denmark, in violation of its treaty engagements, endeavored to incorporate Schleswig. Prussia, of which Bismarck was now Premier, acting in concert with Austria, made war on Denmark, and the allies obtained joint sovereignty over Schleswig-Holstein (q.v.). In 1866, in alliance with Italy, Prussia made war on Austria. Austria was supported by all the South German States and by the more important n. of North Germany, but victory rested with Prussia. (See Seven Weeks' War'.) Italy ob- tained Venice; Prussia annexed a considerable part of North Germany, and organized with the remaining principalities and cities a North Ger- ii federal State, of which the King of Prus- sia was hereditary President. Failing to obtain any npensation for his benevolent neutrality, Napoleon 111. was forced by French popular feel- ing to quarrel with Prussia and to endeavor to arresl the unification of Germany. In the ensu- ing war (1870-71) the South German states acted with Prussia: and during the German of Paris. King William of Prussia was pro- claimed Emperor of a united Germany. To this new empire France was forced to cede Alsace and a part of Lorraine. (See FRANCO-GERMAN War.i During the war, Italy annexed Rome. The Rohan Catholic Chubch and the Mod Si ltes. Jusi lii-tore the occupation of Rome by the Italian an Ecumenical Council (1869 ,ii had de id the dogma of Papal iin.il libility. Viewed politically, this dogma signifies Hi- complete subjection ol the bishops to Papal authority and the centralized guidance of the ( hmvli militant in it- struggle agains! whai it regards as the usurpations of the modern Slates. Simultaneously Catholic or 'Ultramontane' pai n organized (or reorganized) in many of ii state--, and while these parties il n the right of the Church to direel their political activity, they are supported by Church influence and work in accordance with II en I. J policy of the Church. In Prussia and other movements have led to legit Ia1 ion Intended to check the [political activity of the clergy and to diminish the control of the Church over education. (See Kulturkampf. ) The fur- thest step was taken by the French Republic in 1902 in the effort to resist and supervise educa- tion by the clergy . Eastern Affairs (1856-98). The integrity of the Turkish Empire, guaranteed by all the Powers in 1850. has since been seriously impaired. In 1859 Moldavia and Wallacbia elected the same 'hospedar' or governor; in 1 siii; they were united under Prince Charles of Hohenzollern into a practically independent State. In IS71. taking advantage of the disturbed state of Europe, Rus- sia, with the support of Germany, obtained from the Powers the abrogation of those- provisions of the Treaty of Paris which limited its naval forces in the Black Sea. In 1875 insurrections broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and shortly after- wards in Bulgaria. The latter revolt was crushed with such cruelty that European sentiment was outraged, and the Powers, after fruitless negotia- tions, left Russia free to deal with Turkey. The fourth Russo-Turkish war of the century, 1*77- 78, ended with the Russians at the gates of Constantinople. (See Russo-Turkish War.) A preliminary peace (see Turret) went so far in the dismemberment of Turkey that the Powci - insisted on its revision. (See Berlin, Congress of.) The settlement effected at Berlin has since been modified. Of the three prineipali- i ies recognized as independent — Rumania, Servia, and Montenegro — the first two have become king- doms. Bosnia and Herzegovina, of which the ad- ministration was intrusted to Austria, have be- come in fact Austrian provinces, although the fiction of Turkish suzerainty is retained. Bul- garia and East Rumelia were united, by the revo- lution of 1885, into a single tributary princi- pality. In order to preserve 'the balance of power' in the Balkan Peninsula, Servia attacked Bulgaria, but was badly beaten. In one direction only have the limits of Turkey been widened. In 1897 Greece interposed to protect, its fellow- countrymen in Crete, and in the ensuing war with Turkey the Greek armies were so decisively de- feated' that the Powers felt constrained to grant to the victor a 'rectification' of his Thessalian frontier. They took from the Sultan, however, the administration of Crete, and in 1898 they selected Prince George of Greece as their 'high commissioner'; so that Crete is now practically an i nt principality, under Creek rule. About 15.000 Turks emigrated from Crete to Constantinople or to Asia Minor. In Asia and in Africa Turkey and Islam have suffered other losses in the course of the nineteenth cent hit: the most noteworthy events being the gradual advance of Russia into central Asia and into the northeastern corner of Asia Minor, and the estab- lishment of French supremacy in Algiers and Tunis, and of English supremacy in Egypt. European Politics ami World Politics. Af- ter IS71 Austria sacrificed its resentment to its interests, ami entered into friendly relations with Germany and Russia. Until 1*7* the dominant feature of European politics was the cooperation of these three empires. Republican France was isolated. In 1*7* Russian dissatisfaction with the results of the Tone re-, of Berlin, and with the part played by Germany, led to -I rained relations between these two Powers, and Germany entered into a formal alliance with Austria. Earlj in the .lie- 1 1 : 1 1 was admitted a- a third partner.