Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 06.djvu/622

* DTJKER. 54a DUBET. is uncertain whether the original design was by Diirer or not. Among the best engravings of tliis group are the "Knight and Lady," the '•Jladonua with the Monkey," the "Dream," the "I'our itches." He soon progressed to a better manner, using a dark background. Among the prints of this description are the famous "Adam and Kve" (1504); "Christmas;" "Family of iSatyrs" (1505): and the "Little Passion" (10 plates, 1512-13). Afterwards he attempted etch- ings, but not with equal success. He jiresently combined both methods, first etching the plates and then going over them with the graver. These are the very best copper engravings he ever did, and in their beautiful silver tones they display the perfection of pictorial charm in an engraving. Among the best are the "Virgin Crowned by Angels." the "Virgin with the Child." and the well-known "Saint .Jerome in his Study." the weird "Death and the Knight" (1513), and the strange "Melancholia" (1514). He also engraved the portraits of celebrated contemporaries, such as the larger and smaller portraits of Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg, Frederick the Wise, Pirkheimer, Melanchthon, and F.rasmus. Many of his engravings abound in a delightful humor, like the "Three Peasants," "l^ove oilers." and others mentioned above, which are regarded by some as the foundation of genre in modern art. Diirer also occupied himself with sculpture and architecture, but none of the sculptures bear- ing his monogram are unquestionably genuine. The last years of his life were spent largely in literary activity. His original and advanced ideas on fortifications are given in a work on The Fortification of City. Castle, and Market Toirn (Nuremberg. 1527: new ed., Berlin. 1823). His remaining works were on subjects interesting to the painter: Instruction in .Measurinq with the Compass (1525) ; and Four Books of Human Proportion (1528). BiBLiocRAPnY. The literature upon Diirer is very compendious. The chief sources for his life are" his own journal and letters, of which the best edition is that of ^Moritz Thausing, Diirer's Brief e, Tagebiicher und Reime (Leipzig. 1^872). The most important work on Diirer is Thausing, Diirer, Geschichte seines Lehcns und seiner Kunst (2d ed., Leipzig, 1884). trans, of 1st ed. by Eaton (London, 1SS2). Springer, Athrecht Diirer (Berlin, 1892K is also important. His drawings are well treated by Charles Ephrussi. Alhreeht Diirer et ses dessci'us (Paris, 1882) ; his engrav- ings by Sidney Colvin. Albrecht Diirer. His Teachers, Ilis Rivals, and flis /Scholars (London, 1877). Other German monographs on Diirer are bv Eve (Wandsbek, 1802). Kaufmann (Frei- burg," 1887), Weber (Ratisbon, 1804). Knack- fuss (fith ed.. Bielefeld, 1800). Popular mono graphs in English are: Scott (London, 1872), Heaton (London, 1881), Gust (London, 1897). Consult also: Zahn, Diirer's Kunstlehre und sein TerhUltnis zur Renaissance (Leipzig. 1866) : Ret- Tierg. Niirnberg's Kunstleben (Stuttgart, 1854) ; id., Diirer's Kupfersfiehe mjd Uolzsehnitte (Mu- nich. 1871): Schmidt, in Dohmo, Kunst und Kiinstler Deutschlands und der yicderlande (Leipzig. 1877), English trans, by Keane (Lon- don. 1880). DTTRESS (OF. dureee, duresce, duresse, It. durcrui, from Lat. duritia, severity, from durus. hard). Tliat degree and kind of coercion, exer- cised over a person's will, which entitles him to avoid any contract, deed, or transfer of property made during its continuance, or which excuses his criminal acts. As an excuse for crime, duress is narrowly limited by the common law. The victim of the coercion must show that he was driven to com- mit the act by threats of personal violence to him which induced a well-grounded apprehen- sion of present death or grievous bodily barm. Even such threats would not excuse his killing an innocent person, for the view of the law was that he ought rather to die himself than escape by the nuirder of an innocent man. He woiild be justified, however, in killing his coercer. ISIod- ern statutes in some of the United States declare such extreme duress an excuse even for homicide (q.v.). In civil matters, also, the common-law doctrine of duress is confined within rather narrow limits. Not every form of constraint, mifairly imposed by one party to a contract ujion the other, will enable the victim to avoid the contract. Only actual or threatened violence or imprisonment amounts to common-law duress. Moreover, it must be exercised upon the person who makes the contract, or upon the husband, wife, parent, or child of such person; and it must be exercised or instigated or adopted by the one to be bene- fited by the contract. Still again, the threats must be of grievous bodily barm and so made as tc terrorize a man of ordinary nerve and cour- age; or they must be of unlawful imprison- ment. The doctrine has been somewhat extended in this country. According to the prevailing view, a person is under duress who is threatened with lawful imprisonment, provided the threat is made to overcome his will, and does overcome it. and is such as would naturally overcome the ill of an ordinary man. A contract made by him in such circumstances does not have his free and true consent. It is imposed upon him by the threatener, and is voidable. A threat to detain or even to destroy property cannot operate as duress according to the nar- row view of the ancient common law. In some of our States, however, duress of goods is recog- nized, and an owner who promises to pay il- legal exactions in order to obtain possession of his property is allowed to avoid the promise. Even where the old coinmonlaw doctrine pre- vails, the owner who has paid such exactions may recover the money on the ground that the defendant had received money which belonged to the plaintiff. There must, however, be actual constraint to justify a recovery in such a case. Payment of an illegal claim 'under protest' is a voluntary payment and will stand, unless it was cnforcedby actual detainer of property or per- son, or imminent danger thereof. See Qrxsi- CoxTRACT. See also rxiuK Influence; Con- .SENT; and consult the authorities referred to under Contract. DURET, du'ri'. Fraxcisque Joseph (1804- 65). A French sculptor, son of Francois Joseph Duret (1732-1816). of whom he was a pupil. Young Duret won the Prix de Rome in 1823. In 1833 be exhibited his "Neapolitan Fisher Danc- ing the Tarantella." a spirited statue in bronze, which established his reputation. In the same