Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 06.djvu/584

* DXJISBURG. 508 DUKE. was in all probability the Castrvim Dcutonis of the Romans and the Disi)urj;uni of the Franks. It was strongly fortified liy Charlemagne. In the thirteentli century it was a memlicr of the Hansealic League, and afterwards a free town of the Empire, and later a part of the territory cf Clevfs. but at tlic close of the Napoleonic wars it was handed over to Prussia. DUJARDIN, di.rzlilir'diix'. Fet.tx (ISm-fiOK A French zoiilogist. born at Tours. France. April 5, ISUl. He studied at Tours and in Paris, and was later professor of zoiilogy in the Faculte de Kennes. He wrote many works on worms, in- sects, etc., including Histoiie itaturelle des in- fusoires (1841); Histoire naturelle des hel- minthcs (1844). He died at Rennes, April 8, 1860. DUJARDIN, Karel (Ui-22-T8). A Dutch painter, horn jirobably in Amsterdam. He was a pupil of Nickolaas Berchera. and was intluenccd by Potter, but went to Italy wliile still young, and did not return to Holland for several years. His pictures have more of the Italian tlian the Dutch atmosphere. They usually represent land- scape, with figures and animals painted with great freshness and animation. The treatment of the animals has been compared favorably with that of Paul Potter. Dujardin's pictures are somewhat scarce, as he worked slowly. The best of them are in the Louvre in Paris, and one of these, "The Charlatans"' (1657), is his master- piece, although "Christ on Calvary" is as notable a work in another genre, and so is his own por- trait. He also left some etchings of animals and landscajies. DUKATO, Cape. See Cape Dukato. DUK-DUK. A secret society among the Mel- anesian natives of Xew Britain. Its objects are, or liave l)een from time to time, to keep up the esoteric practices of the tribe, to strengthen the power of chiefs and their favorites, to keej) the women under and levy blackmail upon them, to police the primitive village and preserve order and respect among the youth, to deal out rude justice, etc. They are composed entirely of men, and the initiation fees for members are some- times very large. Their masked dances and other ceremonials give scope for native ingenuity. The DukDnk is of great sociological imjiorlance, combining or inchiding as it does many of the features of the bachelors' club. Vrhiiuirrirht, charivari, lodge, etc., of civilized peoples. The Duk-Duk has analogues elsewhere in Oceania, and also, to some extent, in the 'Mumbo .lumbo' societies of the West African negroes. Consult: Powell, Three Yenjs Amoitfi the Cainiibdh of AVio Britain (London. 1884) : and an interest- ing article by Graf von Pfeil in the .loiinuil of the Aiilhrnpologicul Inslitute (London, 1807). DUKE (Fr. due, It. duea, Sp.. Port, diique, AlGk. Soi^. doK.c. from Lat. dux, from ducere, to lead). A title given among the Romans to a gen- eral commanding a single military expedition, and holding no other power than that which he exer- cised over his soldiers. The designation first arose in the early part of the second centurv-, and entered into the official hierarchy of Rome very soon after. T'pon the separation of the civil and military functions in the fourth century the duke became commander of all the troops cantoned in a single province. In an Imperial almanac edited about the year 400, twenty-five dukes are men- tioned in the whole extent of the Empire, thir- teen in the east and twelve in the west. The prerogatives of the dukes at this time were ex- tensive. At first they were judges in all mili- tary trials within thiir jurisdiction, but. in Italy at least, they ended by centralizing in their own hands all the civil and military powers. The Byzantine duke was chief of the provincial soldiers, named the civil and military ollicers of the lower grade, and heard apjH'als from their judgments. He held the civil and criminal juris- diction and even sat with the bishop to hear ecclesiastical cases. He protected the Church and had important functions in its administra- tion. Finally, he took a part in managing the financial allairs of the province. See Exakcii. In France, under the Jlerovingian rule. th& dukes were the highest officers in the provincial administration. At first they were only mili- tary chiefs, but about the seventh century they gained the same military and judicial powers as the counts (q.v.). The latter, however, governed but a single city, while the duke's administration extended over several cities, each with its count. hen the King aj^pointed a duke, it was for the purpose of preventing or repressing a revolt of the counts, or for the defense of the frontier. There was a ducal tribunal, but it was not su- perior to that of the count. Apparently the tribunal was held in special cases, by the order of the King. The possibility of conllicting powers caused frequent strife between the dukes and counts. The Carolingian dukes did not differ greatly from the Merovingian; l)ut as the central power grew weaker in this period, the ))ower of the dtikes increased. The dukes acqiiired regal rights, and by the end of the tenth century had made their tenure hereditary. They bad ac- quired independence and were no longer held to the central power except by the weak bond of homage. In general, the duke assumed all the rights which the King could not retain for him- self. Toward the close of the twelfth century loyalty strove to regain the rights of which it had been robbed. The dukes, however, re- tained their powers longer than the lesser digni- taries. Some duchies were reunited to the crown, but new ones were created, so that the nrmiber increased as their size decreased. Grad- ually, however, the powerful ducal sovereignties vxere extinguished, and by the early ])art of the sixteenth century the King had no rival to fear. The duchies granted after the thirteenth cen- tury, as a general thing, enjoyed none of the ancient privileges of independent sovereignty. The dukes were only the first subjects of the realm. Titles of nobility in France were abolished by the Constituent Assembly dur- ing the Revolution, but were restored by Napoleon, and the ducal title was conferred on his marshals. Several ducal peers were created by Louis XVIII. and Charles X. In Germany the dukedom passed through phases similar to those which it had exhibited in the earlier history of France. What is peculiar to the ))osition of the nobility of Germany will be found under Graf. Dukes, in the older European sense, do not appear ever to have existed in England. The title seems not to have been known earlier than the reign of Edward TIL; and from the first it was a mere honorary distinction. The Black