Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 05.djvu/364

* CONOID. 308 CONQUEST, special forms of ruled surfaces. Wallis (1603) eH'ected llie cubature of a conoid with horizontal directing plane, whose generatrix intersects a vertical directing straight line and vertical direct- ing circle. CON'OLLY, .loiix (1704-1866). An English alienist. He ^vas born at JlarUet Raseu, Lincoln- shire, and studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. In 1830 he became director of the Middlesex Asylum at Hanwull. Inuncdiatcly after his installation, he abolished all the devices theretofore employed to confine and restrain the insane by means of strait-jackets, straps, and similar appliances. Dtiring the period in which he was connected with the institution ( 1839- 1851) he succeeded in completely revolutioniz- ing the treatment of mental disease, and his so-called "no restraint system' found rapid exten- sion everj^vhere. Among his princij)al works may be mentioned: The Treatment of tlic Insane Without Mechanical Restraints (1856); Con- struction and Gocrrnincnt of Lunatio Asylums (1847) ; Essay on Hamlet (1863). CO'NON (Lat., from Gk. KiKJi-, KonOn) . A distinguished Athenian commander. He first came into prominence in B.C. 413, when he was chosen admiral for the year. In B.C. 407 he was appointed general to succeed Alcibiades, but was defeated by Callicratidas at ilitjlene. In B.C. 405 he was defeated by Lysander at .Egospotami, but succeeded in escaping with eight ships to ■Cyprus. In B.C. 394 he commanded the combined fleets of I'ersia and Athens which defeated the Spartans at Cnidiis. He afterwards rebuilt the Long Walls of Athens, and was. in B.C. 392, sent as envoy to the Persian Tiribazus, by whom he was thrown into prison. He died, according to the more probable account, at the court of Eva- goras in Cyprus. CO'NOSCOPE (from Gk. kuws, kOnos, cone -|- aKoneiv, skopein, to view). A polariscope adapted to the study of crystals, having a re- volving stage for regulating the position of the ♦■rystal section imder examination, two Xicol's prisms (polarizer and analyzer) for production of double polarized light, a strongly convergent lens system below the stage to cause the light to enter the crystal in a cone of rays, and a similar sj'stem above the stage to correct the divergence of the rays, so that the eye may focus thehi for the retina. A conoscope is chiefly used to ex- amine the so-called interference figures of crys- tals. The mineralogical or petrological micro- aeope is constructed so as to be used either as a stauroscope or a conoscope. See Polariscope. CONQUEROR, The. A surname poptilarly given to illiam. Duke of Normandy, on becom- ing King of England. CONQUEST (from OF. conrjueste, Fr. con- 4]uete, Sp., Port., It. conquista, from ML. con- ■guista, conquest, from Lat. conquirere. to pro- cure, from com-, together -j- (7«CFrere, to seek). The forcible extension of sovereignty by one State over the territory of another as the result of suc- cessful war. Though it is denied by advocates of natural justice that this carries with it inher- ent rights of appropriation in territory, and destruction of national life, conquest has been one of the strongest agencies in molding civiliza- tion, and, in its influence upon the relationship of nations, it belongs to the realm of interna- tional law as well as to that of history. ^Military conquest is developed from mere occujiation of territory when the victorious State exercises continuously sovereign powers over the section att'ected, and such conquest is deemed to be completed in the legal sense by the conqueror's signifying by some formal act his intention of adding it to his dominions, such as the publica- tion of a diplomatic circular or a proclamation of annexation. The conditions justifying such acquisition and insuring immunity from inter- ference by other States are : ( 1 ) A situation where, in order to redress a wrong or in self- protection, it becomes necessary to strip an aggressor of a portion of his territory. (2) The completion by treaty of the title which possession by conquest has given. (3) A general acquies- cence in the act of the conqueror by neutral States. The changes in the map of Europe wrought by Xapoleon's conquests and annexa- tions were not accepted by the nations affected, and, by the Congress of Vienna, a return to the original conditions was made. Title by conquest is, in principle, to be distin- guished from title by cession, by the fact that, whether ratified by treaty or not, title by con- quest rests avowedly on force, whereas the ces- sion of territory is, in theory at least, always a voluntary act on the part of the ceding power. Thiis, the acquisition of Porto Rico by the United States, as the result of the late war with Spain, was due to its conquest by the military and naval forces of the United States, while the acquisition of the Philippine Islands was dis- guised as a voluntary cession thereof by Spain. Indeed, it is usual for conquering nations in modern times to require as a condition of peace that the defeated nation sliall recognize the title of the former to the conquered territory by a treaty of cession. The title is then, in legal theory, referred to the cession, rather than to the act of conquest upon which it is really based. Unless otherwise defined by treaty, the fol- lowing rules govern the status of property and of the inhabitants of conquered territory: All public jjroperty passes to the eoniiueror abso- lutely. Except in the case of rebellion, private property rights remain undisturbed, and the conqueror is bound to make laws to insure the enjoyment of such rights, appropriate to the new political system imposed. Political laws and sys- tems, being based upon reciprocal relations be- tween citizens and the body politic, are destroyed, and, in the absence of treaty stipulations, politi- cal and civil rights of the inhabitants depend upon the provisions of the new rfgime. Absolute allegiance is due the conqueror, and. on bare con- quest, he may forbid emigration from the country, but not in case of cession. Municipal laws regu- lating the private relations of individuals are not abrogated, however. l:iut continue in force Ijy the implied acquiescence of the new sovereign, until superseded by new enactments. Diflicult problems arise in determining the con- flicting claims caused by the temporary exercise of sovereign powers by a conqueror. A famous example is Hesse-Cassel, overrun by Napoleon's troops in 1806, and later annexed by him to the Kingdom of Westphalia. When the Elector re- turned under the Treaty of Vienna, he refused to respect payments made by the public debtors and the sale of the Crown lands by Jerome Bona- parte. After passing before several tribunals, it was finallv decided that the Elector's reinstate-