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* COMBE. 196 COMBUSTION. spent a good deal of his time in prison. He wrote upward of 200 biographical sketches, 70- odd sermons, many satires in doggerel, and an im- mense number of magazine articles. His most famous work, however, is Three Tours of Dr. Syn- tax (1812-21), written in verse, and illustrated by Kowlandson. It is a comic account of the adven- tures of a pedagogue. Consult Hotten, The Three Tours, ed. with a bibliography (London, 1809). COM'BERMERE, Stapletox Cotton, Vis- count (1773-1SG5). An English soldier. He was born at I.lewenny Hall, Denbighshire, and, after serving in several campaigns in India and South Africa, joined the army in Spain, where he greatl.y disting-uished himself, rising to the com- mand of the entire cavalry of the allied forces. He was commander-in-chief of the army in Ire- land from 1822 to 1825, and was tjien sent in the same capacity to India, where he remained for five years, during part of this time acting as Governor-General. In recognition of his distin- guished services, he received the title of viscoimt, and in 1855 was made field-marshal. A few ,^ears after his death, an equestrian statue was erected to his memory at Chester Castle. Con- sult Memoirs and Corrcspondfnee, edited by his widow and W. W. Knollys (London, 188G)" COMBES, koNb, Th.^ncois (1816-90). A French scholar and historian, born at Alby. He became professor of history at the College of Pamiers in 1844, at the College Stanislas in Paris, 1848, at the Lycte Bonaparte in 1853, and in the Bordeaux faculty of letters in 18G0. He published Histoire generale de la diplomatie curopeenne (1S54) ; La Russie en face de Con- stantinople ct de I'Enrope (1854) ; Histoire des invasions firrnuniirjnes en France (1873); Lec- tnres liistoriqncs n la Sorhonne et A I'Institut (1884-85), and other useful works. COMBES, Justin Louis Emile (1835—). A French statesman, born at Roquecourbe (Tarn). Educated in a Catholic seminary, he devoted himself to philosophic study, took orders, and in I8G0 received the degree of doctor of letters for theses on scholastic metaphj-sics and on the psy- chology' of Saint Thomas Aquinas. But he sud- denly gave up his purpose to become an ecclesias- tical professor, studied medicine, took his degree in 18G7, and settled at Pons. Eight years later he became mayor of that town. In 1879 he was chosen to the Conseil-General. Defeated by Joli- bois in the elections for 1881, he was elected to the Senate in 1885, soon became a leader of the Democratic Left, and took a special interest in matters of hygiene and education. He was vice- president of "the Senate in 1893 and 1894, but resigned from that position in 1895 to accept the Ministry of Education in the Cabinet of Bour- geois, and was viciously attacked by the press and by W'aldeck-Rousseau, then more closely al- lied with the Clerical Party, as a turncoat who used his own ecclesiastical training to help him spy on the Clerical Opposition. But he stayed in the TMinistry only a little more than six months, and only showed his readiness for edu- cational reform, with which he had been con- nected before, as a memlier of the educational budget of 1801 and 1892. and author of a report on the condition of French schools in Algiers. In .June. 1902. Combes took up the difficult task ef forming a Ministry to succeed the unusually successful and long-lived cabinet of Waldeck- Rousseau. But he did not hesitate, even in the task of carrying out to its logical extreme the Association Law of the W'aldeck-Rousseau Min- istry. By the terms of this law the Premier not alone required the registration of orders, but used the purely optional power of closing minor rural schools. The opposition to this apparent attack on the Cliurcli, and evident move against the anti-Republican orders, took the form of armed resistance in some of the outljing dis- tricts, especially Finist&re; but the Government was firm, and the middle of September saw the excitement abated and the Cabinet secure. COMBINATION (ML. combinatio, from Lat. cciiihinarc, to combine, from com-, together + hini, two by two). In law, specifically the union of natural or artificial persons for the promotion of their business interests. When limited to this object, and kept free from fraud, violence, or like sinister methods, it does not fall under (he ban of modern law. If it is resorted to, however, for the accomplishment of an unlawful end, it becomes a conspiracy (q.v. ), and sub- jects its promoters to civil actions for damages, as well as to criminal prosecution. Formerly combinations to raise or depress prices, as well as every form of combination in restraint of trade, were treated as conspiracies by English law. Whether combinations by laborers to raise wages were conspiracies at common law is a question upon which the highest authorities in England difTer. If not at connnon law, they were criminal conspiracies under a series of statutes beginning with 23 Ed. III. in 1349, and closing with 40 Geo. III. c. 60. in 1800. A radical change in legislation on this topic in England began in 1825. and at present combina- tions of workingmen in labor organizations (q.v.) and similar associations are sanctioned by law, both in Great Britain and the United States, pro- vided they are not accompanied by fraudulent, violent, or menacing conduct, or by boycotting or similar unlaAvful practices. See Conspir.cy; Boycott; lNTiMin.Tiox; Trade L'nion; Strike. Combinations of skill and capital, within proper bounds, have always received legal recog- nition; such as the combinations effected in a partnership, joint-stock associations, or corpora- tions. At present the tendency to extend these combinations and to introduce new or modified forms is very marked. Trades tmions (q.v.) among workingmen, and trusts (q.v.) among capitalists, may serve as illustrations. The legislation relating to these forms of combina- tion, as M'ell as their economic and political bear- ings, will be dealt with under the appropriate titles. COMBINATION. See Permutation. COMBING. See C.kding. COMBUSTION (Lat. comhustio. a burning, from combnrere. to burn, probably for *comurere, but with b inserted on the analogy of ambustiis, burned; less plausibly for *co-amb-urere, to bum, from com-, together -f atnb, ambi, Gk. ifitpl, amphi, around -{- iirere, to burn), or Burning. The process by which bodies combine with oxy- gen, and are thtis seemingly destroyed. The term is, in ordinary parlance, restricted to cases in wlsich the process of combination takes place rapidly and is accompanied by heat and light, as the combustion of wood in a fireplace,