Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 04.djvu/778

* CHMIELNICKI. 680 CHOCOLATE. in lfi48 under the leadership of Climieliiicki, who had been wrought up against the Poles by wrongs inflicted upon him. For a time Chmiel- nieki waged war victoriously, his followers com- mitting the bloodiest excesses. At last, however, fortune forsook his standard, and in H)'>4 he placed himself under the protection of the Czar of Russia, who, in return for the suzerainty thus ohtiiined. guaranteed to the Cossacks their an- cient rights and privileges. In 1873 an eques- trian statue of Climielnicki was unveiled at Kiev. For his life, consult Kostomaroff (Saint Peters- burg, 1859). CHMIELOWSKI, Kmye-lov'ske, Piotr (1848- HUI4I. A Polisli writer, born in Podolia. From ISsT to l.sni he was editor of the Aicneum, a monthly review published in Warsaw. He wrote much in literaiy crilieisra, including Studies and SKflches from the History of Polish Literature (2 vols.. l.SHG). CHOATE, Joseph Hodges (1832—). An American lawyer and diplomat. He was horn in Salem, Mass., and graduated at Harvard Col- lege in IS.ji. and at the Harvard Law School in 1S.'>4. He then practiced law for a year in Bos- ton, and afterward went to New York City, where he soon became remarkably successful as a law- yer. In 1884 he became a member of the famous 'legal firm of Evarts, Choate and Beaman. As a trial lawyer he is unsurpassed, and since 1865 he has conducted some of the most noteworthy cases that have come before State and Federal courts, as well as international tribunals. Among them mav be mentioned his successful defense of General Fitz-John Porter, the Tweed Ring prose- cution, the Tilden will contest, the Chinese e.- clusion eases, the cases in which he successfully contested the constitutionality of the Income Tax I.avv of 1894, and the Bering Sea dispute, in which he represented the Canadian Government. Jlr. Choate has been a Republican since 1856, when he supported John C. Frfmont; and in 1894 he was president of the New York State Constitutional Convention. He has been an op- ponent of machine government, and in 189G was defeated for the United States Senatorship by Thomas C. Piatt. In January, 1899. President McKinley appointed him Ambassador to Great Britain to succeed John Hay. He is a graceful orator and after-dinner speaker. CHOATE, RuFUs (1799-1859). One of the most famous of American lawyers. He was born in Ipswich, Mass., on October 1, 1799. As a child he was remarkable for precocity, beginning to read while still almost an infant, and being able before bis sixth year to repeat large por- tions of the Bible ami of Pilfirim's J'rofiress. In 1815 he entered Dartmouth College, where he soon attracted attention by his scholarly habits and unusual abilities, and evinced an apti- tude for classical and historical studies which characterized him through life. He graduated in 1819 as valedictorian of his class, was a tutor at Dartmouth during the following year, and then, undtT the inspiration of Webster's great speech in the DartTUoiitb Crdlege case, which he had heard in 1818, he took up the study of law, entering the Cambridge Law School in 1821 and subsequently removing to the office (in Washington) of William Wirt (q.v.), then At- torney-General of the United States. He re- turned to Massachusetts in 1822, continued his Btudies in Ipswich and Salem, was admitted to the bar in the following year, and began practice in Danvcrs. He married, in 1825, Miss Helen Olcott. He remained in Danvcrs until 1828, when he removed to Salem. In 1830 lie entered Con- gress as a Whig, and immediately attracted gen- eral attention by a brilliant speech in favor of a protective tarifl'. He was reelected in 1832, but resigned in 1834 before the expiration of his term, and opened an olTice in Boston, where be soon became the acknowledged leader, lirst of the local, then of the State, and finally of the New England bar. In 1841, Daniel Web>ter hav- ing become Secretary of State, Clieiate was elected to serve out his term in the United States Sen- ate, and represented Massachusetts until 1845, taking a conspicuous part in the debates on the Oregon boundary, the tarilT, and the annexation of Texas. Weakened by overwork, he spent the stmimer of 1850 in Europe. In 1852, as a mem- ber of the Whig Convention in Baltimore, he led the faction which advocated the nomination of Webster, delivering on this occasion one of his most eloquent addresses; and in 185(i, along with a section of the conservative Whigs, he sup- ported Buchanan in opposition to Fremont. In 1859 his healtli failed him, and under the advice of his ])hysician he sailed for Europe, but, feeling unable to complete the voyage, he landed at Halifax, where in a few days — on July 13 — he died. Throughout his life he was a thorough student not only of law, but also of the classics, English literature, and his- tory, reading with avidity and remembering ev- erything that he read. His eloquence and re- markable facility in the use of the English lan- guage, his intuitive knowledge of human nature, and the acuteness and vigor of his intellect com- bined to make him preeminently successful as a lawj'cr — especially as a jury lawyer — and in the course of a long career he seldom lost a case. Consult: Brown, Life of liiifiis Chonic (Boston, 1870) ; The ^yorh■s of Uufiin Choate. icith a ilemoir (2 vols., Boston, 1862) ; Addresses and Orations of Rufus Choate (6th cd., Boston, 1891) ; Neilson, Memories of Rufus Choate (Bos- ton, 1884) ; and Whipple, Recollect ions of Emi- nent Men (Boston, 1886). CHOBI, cho1)f. A Bantu [leople in south- eastern Africa, extending from the Lower Lim- popo to the sea. They are called Chobi on the river and Mindonga on the coast. They disfigure their faces with lumps raised by scarification. CHOCOLATE (Mex. chocolatl, from ehoco, coca -f lall, water). A preparation nuide from the seeds of Theobroma caeao. (Sec C.CAO.) These seeds are .irst reduced to a fine paste in a heated iron mortar or by a machine, which is poured into mcdds of white iron, in which it is allowed to cool and harden. Chocolate is used a8 a beverage, and for (his purpose is dissolved in hot water or milk. It is also much tised as a con- fection, and for this purpose is mixed with sugar, flavoring matters, and various other substances. Cocoa is niade by reducing chocolate to a powder and removing a portion of the cocoa-butter which it contains, thus rendering it more digestible. The cacao-tree from which chocolate is made nourishes in tropical regions. The total annual product of chocolate is about 100,000,000 pounds. It was brought to Kurope bv the Spaniards, who learned its use from the