Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 04.djvu/540

* CHALDIANS. 462 CHALK. ments. Sayee established the main outlines of the grammar. D. PI. Miiller clcTivd up many dillicultics. Belck and Lelimann discovered most of the inscriptions, and Sandolgian has brought them together in a corpus. BiBLioiiKAi'UY. A good account of the Chal- dians is found in Jlaspero, The Passing of the Empires (London, 189'J). Consult: Sayce, in Journal of the Itoyal Asiatic Hociety, XIV. -XX. (London, 188204); ]3elek and Lohmann, Zcil- t^riirifl fiir Ethnologie (Berlin, IS',12, et scq.) ; id., in Zeitschrift fiir Ansyriolofiie (Leipzig, 1802, et seq. ) and in ycrhandliiiigcn der Ber- liner anthropologischcn Gusell-schaft (Berlin, 1802, et seq.) ; Miiller, Die Keilinschrift von As- clirut Daga (Vienna, 1800) ; Nikolsky, Les in- scriptions cuniiformes de Koelani &irlan (1803): Olmstead, in American Journal of Semitic Languages (Chicago, 1901). CHALET, shii'la' (from :Med. Lat. castel- hliim, dim. of castellum, fort, castle, from cas- irum, fort). The French-Swiss name for the wooden summer hut of the Swiss herdsmen on the mountains: but the term is also extended to include Swiss houses generally, and picturesque and ornate villas built in imitation of them. CHALEURS BAY. or BAIE DES CHA- LEURS, ba da sluVler' (Fr., bay of heat). An inlet on the west side of the Gulf of Saint Law- jence, which partly separates New Brunswick from Quebec (Map: Newfoundland, D .5). It is about eighty-five miles in length from east to west, and has a maximum width of over 20 milefe. While its depth is only about 250 feet in the channel, yet a depth of 100 feet is found quite near the shore, tlius affording commodious anchorage and easy access to the land. Chaleurs Bay receives numerous small streams, chief of which are the Ncpisiguit Kivcr from the south, and the the Pataiiedia River from the west. Fishing is the chief industry. A number of towns sl<irt the shore. Chaleurs Bay receives its name from .Jacques Cartier, who entered it in the lioUest month of 1,53,5. CHALICE, chal'Ts (Fr. caUcc, It. calice, AS. calic, Ger. Kelch, OHG. chelili, from Lat. calix, Skt. kalaia, cuji). This ancient name for a drinking-cup has bwn retained for the vessels used for the wine in the holy sacrament. Some of the earliest were made of wood or horn; others, of which there are some superb Byzan- tine examples, of glass, crystal, or .igate. But on account of their fragility, these materials fell into general disuse in favor of precious metals; and most mediaeval. Renaissance, and modern chalices are of gold, silver-gilt, or silver, often decorated with enamels and set with precious stones. Tlic' were among the objects on which the goldsmith lavislied the greatest care, !Many examples remain in industrial and other muse- ums, and in church treasuries throughout Eu- rope; in some cases, small parish or cathedral churches have presented their old pieces more carefully than the larger institutions. There were two classes of chalices: the ordi- nary chalice, used by the priest at the altar, and the ministering chalice, for the communion of Ibe congregation. The latter was larger and frequently had two handles. The chalice always consisted of three parts — a howl, a long neck, and a fool. It varied very much in shape. The earliest (Fourtli to Eight Century) had a deep, slender bowl, which became broader and more semicircular in the Romanesque age, and then changed radically during the Gothic jieriod, passing lirst to a broader Ihit bowl, with en- larged foot, and then to a conical, tuimel- shaped bowl with longer neck, often broken with bulbs. The bowl itself, which was originally the most decorative part, tended to become the simplest with smooth surface. The chalice is the symbol of Saint .Tohn the Evangelist. C<m- sult: Oiefers, Vebcr den Altarkclch ( Paderborn, ISoti) ; Coiblet, Histoire du saerement de I'Eii- chnrislie (Paris, 1885). CHALK (AS. cealc, Ger. Kalk, Fr. chaux, Ir. cailc, from Lat. calx, lime). A soft earthy vari- ety of limestone or carbonate of lime, which often forms beds of great thickness and extent. It is usually yellowish or white in color, has an earthy texture, is rough to the touch, and ad- heres slightly to the tongue. The average chemi- cal composition is as follows: (1) English chalk -^calcium carbonate, 97.90 per cent. ; silica, .66 per cent.; magnesium carbonate, 0.10 per cent.; ferric oxide, 0.35 per cent. : ( 2 ) Arkansas chalk — calcium carbonate, 95.20 per cent.; silica, 4.42 per cent.; alumina, 2.21 per cent.; ferric oxide, 2.21 per cent. Chalk is formed by the accumulation on the ocean bottom of the tiny shells of Foraminifcra, fragments of moUuscan Shells, sea-urchins' spines, and sponge-spicules, and when a thin sample of it is examined under the miscroscope it is an object of great beauty. It is very abundant in certain areas and also in certain geological formations, the Cretaceous system being so named on account of the thick and extensive deposits of chalk which it contains. These de- posits are especially abundant in England and France, where the great white cliffs of chalk on both sides of the English Channel, notably in the vicinity of Dover, England, and Dieppe, France, are conspicuous objects. Under London the chalk formation has .a thickness of from 000 to 800 feet. In the United States chalk is known to occur in Iowa, Texas, and Arkansas, and other States. Chalk is sometimes used as a building-stone, for, while it is sufficiently soft when fresh to be sawn, it often shows a tendency to harden on exposure to the air. It is burned to lime and the mortar is used generally in the construction of buildings in London. In England chalk has been used for many years as an ingredient of Portland cement, and more recently the Arkansas chalk has been employed for the same purpose. When ground and mixed with water it forms 'whitewash.' If the ground material is freed from grit by washing, it is known as 'whit- ing,' which is used for cleaning silver and making putty, 'Gilder's white' and 'Paris W'hite' are forms of the same material which have been more carefully washed. On acccmnt of its color and softness, it finds general application as a marking material, but when so used has to be mixed with some bonding substance. (See Cr.vyon.) T>ike lime and gipsuni, chalk is used in farming to ameliorate the texture of the soil. In a purified condition it is administered as medi- cine to correct acidity of the stomach. See Cre- taceous System; Sou,: Poktland Cement; Limp. CHALK, Black. See Cr-^yo-N.