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* CELT. 405 CELTIC LANGUAGES. only by wear, tlie cell is in liiglier eultiire fash- ioiu'd l>y battering and grinding, then by chip- ping, and linally by combinations of chipping, battering, and grinding best adapted to particu- lar uialcrials. lielter tlian any other .single ini- plenicni, the cell illustrates the transition from protolilhic culture to technolitliic culture in early human development. For illustration, see ABc'lI-liOLOUY, Amehic.vn. CEL TIBE'RI (Lat. nom. pi,, from Ce}tus, Celt + Ibcnix. Iberian, Gk. KeXTi^epet, Kelti- bvit's). A powerful people of ancient Spain, supposed to have sprung from a blending uf the Iberians or Spanish aborigines with t'ellic in- vaders from Gaul. The Celtiberi inhabited a large inland district of the peninsula, corre- sponding to the southwest half of Aragon and the northern and eastern parts of Castile, but the name Cclliberia had often a wider signification, uicluding the country as far south as the sources of the Guadalquivir. The Celtiberi were di- vided into four tribes, and were unquestionably one of the bravest and noblest peoples in the peninsula. Their cavalry and infantry were equally excellent. The Romans met their power- ful resistance after the Second Punic War, and they were linally conquered by the destruction of Xumantia, one of their chief towns, by Scipio Africanus in n.c. 13.3. They later joined the revolt of Sertoriiis, but after his death in B.C. 72, they became quite Romanized in customs, lan- griaac. and dress. CELTIC or KELTIC CHURCH (Lat. Cel- iicus, from Celta, Gk. Ki'/.rai, lii Ilai, or Kclroi, Keltoi: originally meaning high, and probably connected with Lith. kcltas, high, kiilmis, hill, Lat. rrlsus, high, Gk. /coPiuidf, kolOiiox, hill, less plausibly connected with Olr. (loiilcl. Gael. Oaidhcol, Gael. Gael). The earliest Christian Church in Great Britain and Ireland. It is not definitely known when Christianity was there introduced. Roman tradition puts it in the Second Century as the result of a request from King Lucius of Eleutherius, Bishop of Rome from 177 to 193; others argue for the same period, only they connect it with the fierce persei'Ution at Lyons, which drove Christians across the English Channel. These fugitives car- ried with them the Eastern form of Christianity which the Lyons Church had. In the Third Cen- turj- Christianity existed in Britain: and in the Fourth, bishops from that country sign con- ciliar rolls. In the Fifth Century the British province of Britain was essentially Christian. In the Sixth Century the invading Saxons drove the Celts into the mountains of Wales and there four bishoprics existed. Augustine was sent to England by Gregory I. in .596. and so the Roman form of Christianity, which in some de- tails differed from the Celtic form, especially as to the date of observing Easter, which the Celts in conunon with the Eastern Church obser'ed on the 14th of Xi.san, on whatever day of the week it came, first found lodgment on British soil. In 603 a conference was held by Augustine with some Celtic bishops, but his haughty bear- ing alienated them. Gradually, however, the Roman form encroached upon the Celtic, and in 777 the la.st station in South Wales had con- formed to Rome. Still the Celtic Church was not extinct farther north, but it was declining; and in 1172 it was reformed upon the model of Rome. Christianity was introduced into Ireland by .'saint Patrick, sent l>y Pope Celestine about 47.5. Xcarly the whole island was converted before his death. .-Vs he was the grandson of Christians who dwelt on the Clyde. Christianity nnist have penetrated into Scotland in the Fourth Century, or even earlier. But it was strengthened by Irish monks, who, coming with Saint Columba about 5(i3, carried on missionary operations from lona as a centre, and especially in Xorlhumbria. In fi64 the Celtic Church in Xorlhumbria con- formed to the Roman model, and so its separate histon- ended, as was the case in Scotland in 1133. In Ireland, the merging of the Celtic into the Roman rite was completed in the same year, and henceforth England, Scotland, and Ireland were Christian witliout variant rites and cere- monies. See CtiLDEES. CELTIC LANGUAGES. A group of lan- guages, hutli ancient and modern, belonging to the Indo-European family, and now comprising Welsh, Breton (Armoric), Irish. Scottish Gaelic, and Manx. The connection of the Celtic lan- guages with the Indo-European family has been recognized since the time of Pictet (1S37) and Bopp (1838), but the scieutilie study of them dales from Johann Cas|>ar Zeuss, whose Grnmiiiatica Ccllica (1853) laid the foundations of modern Celtic philolog)'. His work has been continued by a series of distinguished .scholars both in the British Isles and on the Continent, and rapid progress has been made in all dei)art- ments of the subject. But Celtic studies are still new, and it will be long before the Celtic languages are as well understood or the litera- tures as fully analyzed as those of the Germanic and Romance peoples. Within the Indo-Euro- pean family the Celtic group stands linguistical- ly, as it does geographically, in closest relation with the Italic and Germanic. Certain common characteristics of the Celtic and Italic (e.g. the formation of the passive in -r) have led to the assumption of a common Italo-Celtic lan- guage. But it is safer to account for them by a theory of interaction and mutual innuen<'e. The Celtic languages themselves fall into two main divisions — the Continental and the Insular. Of the Continental Celtic, or Gaulish, very little is known. The Gaulish languages died out early, and no literar- monuments of them have been preserved. The only remains are inscriptions and coins, which yield little besides proper names. More material of the same sort is found in the Greek and Latin historians. The Insular Celtic consists of two groups of lan- guages — the British, or Brythonic (comprising Welsh. Breton, and Cornish), and the Gaelic, or Goidelic (comprising Irisli, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx). Pictish has sometimes been reckoned with the Celtic languages, but present opinion inclines to regard it as not Indo-European. Of the six insular Celtic languages, five are still living. Cornish died out toward the end of the Eighteenth Century. Welsh and Breton are each spoken to-day by more than a million of [jeojile : Irish by more than a half a million; and Scottish Gaelic by rather fewer. These languages, how- ever, do not constitute the sole vernacular of the people, most of whom speak also either Eng- lish or French, according to their nationality. Manx seems likely to die out in the near future, unless it is rescued by the earnest agitation now going on in all the Celtic countries for the pres-