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* CARPENTER. 244 CARPET. memoirs on various departments of physiology, microscopical anatomy, and natural history, in the Philosophical Tra7>sactions. His most im- portant original researches are On the Structure of iShclls; On the Development of Purpura Lapil- lus; and On the Structure, Funetiona, and (len- cral Histori/ of the Fordminifcrci. Ills published vorks also include: ZoiHoijy and the Instincts of Animals (1857): Physiology of Temperance (1870); Mesmerism and Spiritualism (1877); and yature and Man (1888). For several years he edited The British and Foreign Medico- Chirurgical Reriew, and he was one of the editors of The Natural History Reiieic. From 18.50 to 187i1 he was registrar of the University of London. He took a chief ])art in the Govern- ment expedition sent out in lSt)8-70 for deep- sea exploration in the northern Atlantic, and in consequence he contributed largely- to the dis- cussion of the vexed question of ocean circula- tion, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society and other periodicals. He advocated the doctrine of a vertical circulation, sustained by opposition of temperature only, independent of and distinct from the horizontal currents pro- duced by winds. This doctrine was first ad- vanced by Professor I.eiiz, of Saint Petersburg, in 1845 ; but Dr. Carpenter was ignorant of this when the deep-sea observations, begun in 1868, led him to an identical theory. He was presi- dent, in 1872, of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. CARPENTER, Willi.m Boyd (1841 — ). An En<.disli clergyman of the Established Church, Bishop of Rii)on. He was bora in Liverpool, was educated at the Royal Institution, Liverpool, and Saint Catherine's College, Cambridge, and was appointed ilulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1878. In 1887 he was appointed Bampton lec- turer at Oxford, and in 1895 pastoral lecturer on theology- at Cambridge. He held several curacies, was ^•icar of Christ Church, Lancaster Gate, from 1879 to 1884, canon of Windsor in 1882-84. and chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Vic- toria in 188.S and 1884. In the latter year he was appointed Bishop of Ripon. His numennis publications include: a Commentary on Revela- tion (1879); Permanent Elements of Religion (Bampton lectures 1889) ; Lectures on Preach- ing i 1895) ; and a Popular Eiston/ of the Church of England (1900). CARPENTER BEE. A solitary bee that excavates its nest in solid wood, in a dead twig, or in the pith-hollow of various plants ; it repre- sents in the United States various species of Ceratinida- and Xylocopidie. The former are smooth, active, fly-like little bees, usually metal- lic blue or green, of which the Ceratina dupla, one-quarter inch long, is a familiar example. It bores tunnels into the stems of pithy plants, and especially of brambles. This tunnel is di- vided into silk-lined compartments by partitions made of agglutinated pith. An e^-g, together with some imllcn. is inclosed in each compart- ment until the entire burrow is filled save a small space at the entrance just large enough to con- tain the parent female, where she awaits the hatching of her children. The hatching occurs in each compartment in succession, beginning with the bottom, each I)ee tearing out the jiarti- tion of its own cell and awaiting the birtli of the I>ee above it. When all are readv the female sallies forth with her brood, and soon after arranges for a second. The large carjjenter bees of the family Xylocopid* are represented all over the northern United States by Xyloeupa virginiea, which is as large and noisy as a bum- blel)ee, but reversely colored, and its hiiul legs bear tufts of hair instead of pollen-baskets. Th'is bee bores its tuiniels. which are nearly half an inch in calibre, in solid wood, such as that of dead timber, dry stumps, fence-posts, and un- painted woodwork about houses and outl>uild- ings; it is therefore easy to observe the metliod in detail. A short perpendicular entrance made across the grain leads into the centre of a burrow following the grain, v.hich may be 18 inches long, requiring a mouth's labor. The raspings formed in excavation are agglutinated, prol)ably by salivary excretions, into partitions dividing" tlie burrow into cells about two-thirds of an inch long, in which the eggs are placed together with balls of pollen and nectar. Several bees may use the same entrance to the tunnel and several chambers may run parallel, but usually they run in oppo- site directions from the conunon door. These bees will often utilize an old burrow to save the gi-eat labor of digging, and would do so more regularly, iicrbaps. did they not often find them already preempted by other kinds of insects. See Bee, and see Plate of Wild Bees. CARPENTRAS, kiir'pax'tra' (ancient Car- pentoracte, of Celtic oiigin). A town in the Department of Vaucluse. France, on the left l)ank of the Auzon, 16 miles by rail northeast of Avignon (Map: France, M 7). It contains a number of Roman remains, including a small triumphal arch. It has also an old cathedral, an episcopal palace (now used as a palais de justice), a theatre, and a library. The chief products are leather, wax, chemicals, and fruit. Population, in 1896, 8391. CARPENTRY. See Bmij)iNO, and Wood- WoRKiXd .I.iiiiERY. The artistic side of car- pentry is treated under Abciiitectlke. CARPET (OF. carpite. It. earpita-, a coarse cloth, Jled. Lat. carpeta, earpita, from Lat. car- prre, to pluck). A cloth or other woven fabric used to cover a floor. Woven carpets were first used in the East, where the custom of sitting eross-legged on the floor still renders them espe- cially useful. Our early ancestors covered the floors of their houses with rtishes. hair, or straw, and carpets, when first introduced, were used to cover tables. As late as 1730 a carpet is defined, in Bailey's Dictio>uirium liritannicum, as a table- cover; but in a succeeding edition, published in 1700, it is described as a covering for a table, I>assageway, or floor. At first the carpets used in Europe were all im])orted from the East, and the trade was largely in the hands of the Italian cities. Long before this, however, noble ladies, monks, and nuns in convents had been accustomed to make beautiful tapestries, which were occa- sionally used as floor-coverings. In 1607 a regu- lar factory was established at the Louvre for making these wall-hangings and carpets, by the reigning King of France, Henry IV. In" 1027 the carpet-factory known as the Savonnerie was e.stablished in Chaillot, and in 1604 Colbert, Minister of Louis XIV., established a carpet-fac- tory at Beauvais. Slost of the weavers in these factories were Protestants, of Flemish descent, and. with the revocation of the Edict of Xantci.