Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 04.djvu/283

CARNOT. stabbed by an Italian anarcbist named Cascrio, in Lyons, and died tbe next day. dune 2.). 1894. He was succeeded as President by Casiniir-POrier. I'onsult Hubbard. L'nc famille r^publicaiiic: Ics laniul (Paris 1888).

CARNOT, XnoLAs Lfiox.^RD S.di (170G- 1S32). A Krencb physicist, to whose early re- searches and theories must be ascribed the be- ginning (if the modern science of thermodynaiiiics (q.v. I. He was bom in Paris, the son of Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot. He entered the lolytechnic School in 1812, from which he passed into the corps of engineers, where he .served until 1828. Working in this capacity, he had time and opportunity for scientific re- search, and in 1824 publislied his famous work, Ri'fU'xions fiir la piiinsnncr motricc (hi feu, in which is described his cycle and reversible engine. Carnot's work was based on the theory that heat was a substance, 'calorie,' but so fierfect was his reasoning that the theory re- quired but few modifications to adapt it to the dynamical theory-, which was later acce])ted, even by Camot himself. According to Carnot, the amount of work done by a heat-engine de- pends on the amount of heat transferred and the difference in temperature between the source of heat and the receiver : work can be done only when heat passes from a warmer to a colder body. This is, in substance, the second law of thermodynamics, enunciated by Clausius in 1850, which stated that heat cannot of itself pass from a colder body to a hotter one. nor can it be so made to pass without any inanimate material mechanism ; and no mechanism can be driven by a mere simple cooling of any material object lielow the temperature of surrounding objects. In order to study the efficiency of the steam-en- gine. Carnot devised a reversible engine where the amount of energy grodueeil and heat applied could be investigated under ideal conditions. Camot also appreciated the important principle now known as conservation of energj-, stating that motive power is in quantity invariable in nature: it is, correctly speaking, never either produced or destroyed. Carnot's work was great- ly extended and adapted to modern theories by Sir William Thomson, who published important jiapers in 1848 and 1849 which indicated that from these researches could be evolved the abso- lute thermodynamic scale of temperature. Car- not's great essay was printed in (icrnian, in OstiinhVs Klnssiker, Xo. 37 (T-eipzig, 1802), and an English translation has been made by Prof. II. H. Thurston, to which was ajipended an Ac- count of f 'a mot's Theory, by Lord Kelvin (New York, ISliO).

CARNUN'TUM (Lat.. from the Celti'e). An ancient town in Upper Pannonia. on the Danube, a few miles cast of Vienna, founded by the Celts, but at an early period a Roman post. Marcus -Vurelius resided here for three years, during his wars with the Marcomanni. In the Fourth Century Carnuntuni was destrriycd by German invaders. It was afterwards rebuilt, and finally destroyed in the Magyar wars of the Middle Ages.

CARO, kAr'6. A village and county-seat of Tii-rcpbi County, Mich., 32 miles east by south of Bay City, on the Cass River, and on the Michigan Central Railroad (Map: Michigan, K 5). It is in an agricultural country, adapted particularly to tlie cultivation of sugar-beets, and has industrial interests represented by flour- mills, grain-elevators, a beet-sugar refinery, lum- ber-mills, brick and tile works, a foundry and machine-shop, shoe, steel horse-collar, and tele- lihone factories, marble-works, etc. Population, in 1890, 1701: in 1900, 200(.

CARO, kii'ro,. mb.i.e (1.507-00). An Italian poet. best remembered for his felicitous uanslation of Wrgil's Ahicid. He was born at Civitanova. in Ancona ; became at an early age tutor to the sons of Luigi CJaddi, in Florence; and in 1543 entered the .service of Pier Luigi Farnese, nephew of Paul 111., who sent him on numerous embassies, among others to the Em- peror Charles V., in Flanders. After the death of Pier Luigi, Caro served successively the Duke Ottavio Farnese and the latter's brothers, the Cardinals Ranuccio and Alessandro, with whom he remained until his death, in 156G. Caro num- bered among his friends many of the best-known men of letters of his day — Molza. Salviati, Va- sari, and Tansillo. He was an accomplished letter-writer, and his Lettere familiari are not only full of interest, but have often been re- printed as models of style. One of his most fa- mous poems is a panegyric upon the House of Valoi-s, written at the request of Cardinal Ale.s- sandro, which was the cause of a bitter and protracted controversy with a certain Castelvetro, resulting in the death of one of Caro's supporters and in Castelvetro's banishment. Caro's felici- tous translation of the .EhpiVZ was begun, he tells us, "in jest, and only as an experiment," but he continued it for the pleasure of "making trial of the language in comparison with Latin.'' The translation, which remained unfinished, is rather a skillful paraphrase than a faithful rendering; but, like all his writings, bears the stamp of a cultured and polished style. The best editions of Caro's works were published in Venice (1757), in Milan (180(i), and a volume of selected works appeared in Florence (1864).

CARO, ka'rft', Eliie Marie (1826-87). A French philosopher, born in Poitiers. He was appointed professor of philosophy at the Sor- bonne in 1864. and elected to the .cademie in 1874. His writings, many of them in opposition to modern positivism, comprise Etudes morales sur !e temps present (1855: 3d ed., 1875), Vidie de Dieu et ses notiveaux critiques (1864; 7th ed., 1883), and a study of Hartmann, Schopenhauer, and Leo])anli in Le ijissiniisinc mi XlXe Steele (1878).

CARO, ka'rA. .Takob (1836—). A Geraian historian. He was born in Cnesen. and after studying in Berlin and Leipzig was professor of history in Jena imtil 1800. when he accepted a similar chair at the University of Breslau. His publications, which deal chiedy with Polish and Hussite history, include the continual i(m of Rii- pell's deschich'te I'olens (3 vols., II.-V.. 1863-88), published in I'kert and Heeren's desehichte der curopiiischen Staalcn : Das hitcrrcfittum Polens im Jahre 1587. nnd die Parteik'impfe der Hiiuser Zboroirslci und Zamojshi (1861> : Liber Cancel- lariw fitanislai Ciolek, Bin Formclbuch aus der hiissitisohen Keieryung (2 vols., 1871-74); .4ms der Kanzlei Kaiser Sigistnunds (1879): and Jieata und Hahzka, Eine polni^ch-russisehe (lesehichle aus dem 16. Jahrhmidert (1883),