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* CANADA. 118 CANADA. tion was to have a Legislative Council, to be ap- pointed by the King, for life; an assembly, to be chosen by a popular vote; and a Governor and Executive Council, to be appointed by the King; while French institutions were for the most part to obtain in the one and English in- stitutions in the other. The so-called "ilaritime Provinces' — New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward Island — were placed under administrations very similar to that of Upper Canada. In Lower Canada a party of discontent almost immediately arose, and until the reorganization of the Government, in 1841, there was almost continual friction between the Popular Assembly on the one side, representing the French element, and the Governor and Leg- islative Council on the other, representing al- most exclusivel}' the English element. In spite of the unifying influence of the War of 1812 with the United States (see United States, History), in which men of all races through- out Canada participated, this racial antagonism became more and more accentuated, until, in 1837, a cei-tain element of the French popula- tion, under the leadership of Louis J. Papineau (q.v. ), angered by the intervention of the Brit- ish Government, rose in revolt against the Brit- ish autliority, but were quickly suppressed. Meanwhile in Upper Canada much discontent was caused by the political dominance of a small class, descended from the Loyalists, and united, it was charged, under an alleged 'family compact' for the purpose of monopolizing the public offices. The popular dissatisfaction with the prevailing state of affairs was greatly in- creased by religious antagonisms and by the exposure, through the agency of one Eobert Gourlay, of apparent frauds in the disposition of public lands. In 1837, also, the more rad- ical of the reformers, doubtless encouraged by the outbreak in Lower Canada, organized a 're- bellion,' under the leadership of William L. Mackenzie (q.v.), but were defeated and driven out of Ihe province before the close of the fol- lowing year. Meanwhile Lord Durham had been sent out from England as Governor-General and high commissioner "for the determining of certain important questions depending in the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, re- specting the fomi and future government of the said provinces," and, largely as a result of the famous report made by him in 1839, the two provinces were reunited, in 1841, by an act of Parliament, which jirovided for a Governor, to be ajipointed by the Crown, a Legislative Council, also to be ap])ointcd (for life) by the Crown: a Legislative .ssembly, to which Upper and Lower Canada were to send an equal numl>cr of repre- sentatives, to be elected by popular vote ; and an Executive Council, or Cabinet, to be chosen by the Governor from the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. The Maritime Provinces, meanwhile, retained their separate governments. After the union of Upper and Lower Canada, the advantages of a federal union of all the prov- inces liecame more and more apparent, especially since, by reason of the plan of equal representa- tion, and the unequal growth of the two united provinces, a reorganization of some kind was ren- dered imperative. In 1804 a convention of dele- gates representing the various provinces was held at Quebec for the purpose of considering the advisability of union, and under the leader- ship of Sir John Maedonald (qv.) formally adopted a set of resolutions, which served as the basis for the Act of Union passed by the British Parliament in February, 18U7. Under this act, the provisions of which are given in an- other part of this article. Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New IJrunswick were formally united as the Dominion of Canada, which subsequently — in 1871 and 1873, respect- ively — received the accession of British Colum- bia and Prince Edward Island. Newfoundland, however, refused to enter the union, and still continies to hold herself aloof. The vast terri- tory which since 1070 had been under the con- trol of the Hudson Bay Company, was acquired by the Dominion in 1800 — an event which pro- voked an uprising, along the Red Kiver, of the half-breeds under Louis Kiel (q.v.), and in 1870 this territory was subdivided into Mani- toba, which was immediately admitted into the Dominion on equal terms with the other prov- inces, and the Northwest Territories, out of whi(rh districts were subsequently created as follows: Keewatin, in lS7(i; Assiniboia, Sas- katchewan. .lberta, and Athabasca, in 1882; and Ungava, Mackenzie, and Franklin in 1S!).5. The principal events since the creation of the feder- ation in 1S07, in addition to those already men- tioned, have been the raids of the Fenians in 1870-71, who had also made a desultory attack in 1800 (see Fenian Sooiety) ; the adoptionof a high customs tariff in 1S70; a second oullireak of the half-breeds and Indians under Riel in 188.5; the completion of the Canadian Pacilic Ii;iilroad in the same year; and the agitation in Xewfonndland ( 1887-91 ) over encroachments by Frcnclitishermen. The boundary line between Canada and the United States, which was determined with con- siderable vagueness by the treaty of 1783, has formed the subject of much controversy between the United States and Great Britain, and was not finally settled for the northeast until 1842, and for the northwest initil 1840. The question of the right of the .Xmericans to fish in Canadian waters has also been the subject of considera- ble controversy between the two governments (see Sealing), as has also the right of the Canadians to participate in the seal fisheries in Bering Sea (.see Bkking Sea Controver.sy). From 1854 to 1800 there was a reciprocity treaty with regard to trade and commerce be- tween Canada and the United States, and since its repeal frequent attempts without avail have been made by the Canadian Government to se- cure its renewal. Biblioguapiiy. For a bibliography of works on Canadian history, consult: Faribault, Cata- logue d'ouvrages sur I'histoire de VAindrique et en particuUer sur celle du Canada (Quebec, 1837) ; Gagnon, Essai de hihliographie cana- diciine (Quebec, 189.5) ; Wrong, Review of His- torical Publications Relating to Canada (To- ronto, 1897 — ); and Larncd (ed.), The Litera- ture of American History (Boston, 1902). For the French regime, consult: Charlevoix, Histoire et description gendrale de la Nouvclle France (3 vols., Paris, 1744; English translation, 6 vols.. New York, 1800-72) ; Thwaites (ed.), Jes- uit Relations and Allied Documents (73 vols., Cleveland, 1890-1901); Faillon, Histoire de la colonic frangaise en Canada (3 vols., Montreal,