Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 03.djvu/893

* CJESAB. 785 CJESAB. Csesar next subdued Ponipcius's legates in Spain, who were at the head of considerable forces. On his return he took Massilia (Mar- seilles), where he learned that he had been ap- pointed dietator of the Republic — a function whieli at this time he retained for only eleven days; but these were honorably distin<;ruished by the passing of several humane enactments. Pompeius, now thoroughly alive to the uuigni- tude of his danger, had gathered a jjowcrful array in Egypt, Greece, and the East, while his lleet swept the sea. Csesar, however, crossing the Adriatic at an unexpected season, hastened to Dyrrhachium, where Pompeius's stores were; but was nevertheless outstripped by his oppo- nent. Pompeius intrenched his army upon some high ground near the city, where he was be- sieged by C.nesar. The first encounter was favor- able to Pompeius, who drove back Caesar s legions with much loss. The latter now retreat- ed to Thessaly, followed by his exulting enemies. A second battle ensued on the plains of Phar- salia, August 9, B.C. 48. Pompeius's army was utterly routed and Pompeius himself lied to Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered. See Pompeius. Xo sooner had the news reached Rome than Cipsar was again appointed dictator for one year, and consul for five years. He was invested with tribunitial power for life, and with the right of holding all the magisterial eomitia except those for the election of the plebeian tribunes. He did not, however, return to Rome after the battle of Pharsalia, but went to Egypt, then in a dis- tracted condition on account of the disputes re- garding the succession. Out of love for Cleo- patra (who subsequently bore him a son), he entered upon the "Alexandrine War,' in which he was successful, and which he brought to a close in March, B.C. 47. He next overthrew Pharnaces, King of Bosporus, son of INIith- ridates, near Zela, in Pontus, August 2d of ihe same year, and arrived in Rome in Sep- tember. He was once more appointed dictator, and the property of Pompeius was confiscated and sold. Before the close of the year he had set out for Africa, where his campaign against the Pompeian generals, Scipio and Cato, was crowned with victory at the battle of Thap- sus, April 6, B.C. 40. Cato committed suicide at Utica ; and with such irresistible celerity was the work of subjugation carried on, that by the end of the summer Ctesar was again in Rome. Xow occurred that display of noble and wise generosity which proves Csesar to have been possessed of a great, magnanimous nature. He was not a man that could stoop to the vulgar atrocities of JIarius or Sulla, and so he majes- tically declared that henceforth he had no ene- mies, and that he would make no difference be- tween Pompeians and C'sesarians. His victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa were cele- brated by four great triumphs, during which the whole Roman populace was feasted and ff-ted by the magnificent liberality of the dic- tator. He now proceeded to check, by wholesale en- actments, as far as in him lay, the social evils which had long flourished in the city. During the year B.C. 40, also, he conferred a benefit on Rome and on the world by the reformation of the calendar, which had been greatly abused by the Pontifical College for political purposes. In the meanwhile Pompeius's sons, Gneius and Sextus, were in arms in Spain. Caesar over- whelmed their forces at Munda (B.C. 4.5). He now received the title of 'Fatiier of his Country.' and also of impcralor; was.nuide dictator and prwfectuK morum for life, and consul for ten years; his person was declaretl sacred, and even divine; he obtained a bodyguard of knights and senators; liis statue was placed in the temples; his portrait was struck on coins; the month Quintilis was called .Julius in his honor; and on all public occasions he was permitted to wear the triumphal robe. He now pro]iosed to make a digest of the whole Roman law for public use; to found libraries for the same purpose; to drain Ihe Pontine nuirslies; to enlarge the harbor of Ostia; to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth; and to quell the inroads of the bar- barians on the eastern frontiers. But in the midst of these vast designs he was cut oil by assassination, on the Ides (1.5th) of March, B.C. 44. The details of this crime — the greatest disaster that could have befallen the Roman world, as sul)sequent events made plain — are too familiar to require narration. It is sufficient to say that of the sixty aristocrats who were in the conspiracy, nuiny luid jiartaken of Caesar's generosity, and all of his clemency. A few, like Brutus, out of a weak and formal conscien- tiousness, based on theory rather than insight, were probably shocked by Caesar's desire to change the form of government into an hereditary monarchy; but most of them, like Cassius, were inspired by a jealous hatred of the dictator, and the base ambition of regaining power at all hazards. Caesar, who was 56 years of age when he was murdered, was of a noble and kingly presence, tall of stature, and possessing a countenance which, though pale and thin with thought, was always animated by the light of his black eyes. He was bald-headed (at least, in the latter part of his life), wore no beard; and though of a rather delicate constitution naturally, he ultimately attained to the most vigorous health. His be- setting sin was sensuality; but without meaning to detract from the criminality of his conduct in this respect, it may be said that it was as much the sin of the times in which he lived as his own, and that the superlative grandeur of his position gave a prominence to his licentious- ness which a more humble lot would have es- caped. His intellect was marvelously versatile. In everjthing he excelled. He was not only the first general and statesman of his age, but ho was — excepting Cicero — its greatest orator. As an historian he has never been surpassed, and rarely equaled in simplicity and vigor of style, and in the trutlifulness with which he narrates events of which lie was an eye-witness. He was, moreover, a mathematician, philologist, jurist, and architect, and always took great pleasure in literary society. Most of his writings have been lost, though their titles are preserved; yet we still possess his invaluable Cominentarii (generally know-n as "Cipsar's Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil Wars"). The cditio prin- rcpn was printed at Rome (1449). The best edi- tion of his works is that of Dinter (Leipzig, 1S90). Ca>sar's life was formally written in an- cient times by Suetonius and Plutarch. Consult, also: Delorme, ('<^sar et scs Coiitcmporains, etc. (Paris, 18G8) ; Napoleon III., Bisloirc de Juice