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* BRUNNOW. 583 BKUJMO. Congress of Paris in 1856. Immediately after the treaty of peace had been concluded, he was sent on a special mission to London to reestablish friendly relations between the courts of Saint Petersburg and Saint James. He was afterwards appointed to the Court of Prussia, bxit in 1S58 he returned to his old place in London, He repre- sented Russia at the conferences in London in 18B4 and 1S71. In recognition of his services he was made a count by the Czar in April, 1871. In 1874 he retired to Uaniistadt, where he died in the following year. BRUNO, brnn'no, FiLippo Giord.xo (1548- 1600). An Italian philosopher. He was born at Nola (hence often called 'the Xolan'), in the Kingdom of Naples, and entered at an early age the Order of Dominicans : but later, when he expressed doubts in regard to some Church doc- trines, he was obliged to flee from his convent (1576). Henceforth his life was unsettled by reason of the theological and philosophical hos- tility he aroused wherever he stayed. He first went to Geneva, where he spent two years, then to Venice, Padua. Brescia. Milan. Cjenoa. Tou- louse, Paris, London. Oxford, Marl)urg. Witten- berg, Prague, Helmstedt, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Zurich, Padua, and back to Venice. In many of these places he occupied professorial chairs or delivered courses of lectures, as in Toulouse, Paris, O.vford, Wittenberg, and Helmstedt. It was in England, inider the protection of the French Ambassador, and in the enjoTnent of the friend- ship of Sir Philip Sidney, that he composed his most important works (158385). In Venice, in 1592, he was arrested by oflicers of the Inquisi- tion, and conveyed to Rome in 1593. He was now subjected for seven years to persecution and im- ]>risonment, in the vain hope that he would recant; but when all the endeavors of his ene- mies proved inell'ectual, he was given over to the ■civil authorities for final correction, with the request that he "be punished as lightly as possi- ble, and without bloodshed." He told his judges that probably they feared the sentence they pro- nounced more than he. He died at the stake, Februarj- 17, 1600. In 1889. under Papal protest, a monument was erected on the spot where he had met his death. His published writings, of which the most valuable are composed in Italian, dis- play throughout a strong, courageous soul, sus- ceptible of deep enthusiasm, and laboring to attain to the truth. La Cena delle cciieri, or, "Evening Conversations on Ash Wednesday," is an apology for the Coperniean astronomy; the ^pacrio (lella brstia trtonftinte. or, "Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast" (Paris, 1584), is a satir- ical allegory in the style of the times. His greatest works are metaphysical, such as the Delia causa principio ed tino ("On the One First Cause") and De Viii/iiiito vniverxo e mondi ("On the Infinity of the Universe and of Worlds"). The doctrine enunciated in these is pantheistic, and was perhaps inspired by that of Nicolas of Cusa (q.v.), who was himself decidedly N'eo-Pla- tonistic. Bruno held that there is no form with- out matter, and as spirit or soul is form, it can exist only in material emb(]dinient. There is an all-life, animating the whole miverst>. which is thus one living being with life in all its members. Thi.s all-life is (Jod, also called natiira iiaturaiis, who manifests himself in the visible world, or natura naturata. In Ood all the seeming incon- ■-sistencies of the sensible world are harmonized [cmncidentia oppositorum). This thought of the oneness of the universe led Bruno to expand the Coperniean view of astronomy, which in its founder's thought regarded ouly the solar sys- tem, and to make it t;ike in all creation, which is thus regarded as a system of innumerable worlds, each with its own sun, each having developed out of a primitive indefinitcness to its present form, and each destined to decay and dissolve. Every part of this universe is instinct with the life of the whole. The tiltimate irreducible parts are called numads. which are eternal, both spiritual mathematical laws on the corporeal side. In logic Bruno Avas an opponent of the Aristo- telian theory, as interpreted by the scholastics, and was an ardent champion of 'the LuUian art' (see LuLLY, Raymond), which he greatly im- proved. He rejected the syllogism as yielding no new truth, and emphasized the necessity of studying things rather than analyzing concep- tions. Bruno's philosophy had a great influence on subsequent thinkers. Descartes, Spinoza, Leib- nitz, Biihme, Hegel, and many others were nuich indebted to him. Original editions of Bruno's works are very rare. His writings in Italian were published by Wagner (Leipzig, 18-29). All his Latin writings were published in Naples and Florence (1880-89). Consult: Bartholom&ss, Jordano Brutto (Paris, 1846) : Frith. Life of Brvno ihe IS/olayi (London, 1887) ; Berti, Docu- mrtiti intnrno a (riordano Bruno di ola (Home, 1880) ; Sigwart, Die Lchensgeschichte Giordano Brunos (Tubingen, 1880) ; Mariano. Giordano Bruno: La vita e I'uomo (Rome, 1881) ; Brim- hofer, Giordano Bruno's Weltanschauung und VerhSngnis (Leipzig, 1882) ; and a luminous treatment in Pater, Gaston de Latour (London, 1890). BRUNO, S.IXT (1030-1101). The fotinder of the Carthusian order of monks. He was born in Cologne, and received his earliest education in the school attached to the Collegiate Church of Saint Cunibert, in that city. Subsequently he studied in Rheims, where he distinguished him- self so greatly that Bishop Gervasius appointed him in 1057 director of all the schools in his diocese. Brimo. however, soon began to be trou- bled by the wickedness of his time, and, anxious to escape from what seemed to him the general l)olhition, he took refuge, along with si.x pious friends, in a desert place, 14 miles nortli of Grenoble, and there, in 1084, foimded the Order of tlipe Carthusians (q.v.), so called from the monaster}-, now known as La Gramlc Chartreuse. The present building was erected after the last fire in 1676. Brimo and his companions had each a separate cell, in which they practiced the sever- ities of the rule of Saint Benedict, keeping silence during six days of the week, and only see- ing one another on Sundays. Pope Urban II., who was one of Bruno's most eminent scholars, in 1090 summoned the saint to Rome to be his adviser. Bruno obeyed the call reluct-antly, and steadily refused all offers of preferment. He was the comjjanion of Urban in his flight to the Campagna from the threatened onslaught of the Emperor Heni-y IV., and shortly after (1094) established a second Carthusian monastery, called La Torre, in a solitary district of Calabria, not far from Squillace. on the bay of the same name, and there died, October 6, 1101. He was
 * incl corporeal : anil they are atoms, .subject to