Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 03.djvu/34

BIBLE. (2) The Ori<jinal Lanijuapes of the Bibls are Hebrew, Aramaic, and Hellenistic Greek. Hebrew, the language used by a majority of the Old Testament writers, is the Semitic dialect spoken by the inluibilants of Canaan, and adopted, if not originally employed by the Israelites, when they entered that territory. It is characterized by its simple constructions and by the absence of the expressive conjunctions and particles which in the Greek make it possible to indicate delicate shades of logical or philosophical thought. On the other hand, its vocabulary and idioms are exceedingly picturesque, each suggesting a vivid picture. In the verb the tenses discriminate be- tween complete and incomplete: and the different stems, between simple, intensive, causative, re- flexive, and passive action. Its simplicity, vivid- ness, directness, and suggestiveness made it the ideal medium of expression for the story-teller, the poet, the orator,' and the ethical teacher. Aramaic (incorrectly called Chaldee or Chaldaic, from the reference in Dan. ii. 4) was the Semitic dialect spoken originally by the people to the north and northeast of Canaan. The reference in Isa. xxxvi. 11 indicates that as early as B.C. 700 it was the language of politics in south- western Asia. From the days of the Babylonian exile on it was used as the medium of communi- cation between the .lews and other Semitic peo- ples, and gradually supplanted Hebrew even in Palestine, until, about n.c. 200, it became the eommon language. Aside from a few sporadic exami)le3 ( cf. Gen. xxxi. 47 ; Jer. x. Ill, it ap- pears in the Old Testament onlv in Ezra iv. 8 to vi. 18: vii. 12-26: Dan. ii. 4 to vii. 28. The composite structure of these books explains its abrupt introduction into Hebrew- contexts. In Ezra the Aramaic sections represent quotations by the final editor from earlier Aramaic docu- ments, dating probably from the last century of the Persian period. Since his readers were en- tirely familiar with the Arainaic. he did not deem it necessary to translate these into the al- ready classic tongue, which he preferred to em- ploy. In Daniel, as well as Ezra, it is the Western or Palestinian Aramaic, rather than the form of the dialect in use in the East, which appears, suggesting that the originals were writ- ten in Palestine. Hellenistic Greek, the language of the Xcw Testament, is the simplified dialect of Attic Greek, which was in use among the Semitic peoples, Ilpllenizcd as a result of the con- quests of Alexander. By the beginning of the Christian Era it had become the literary language of .lews throughout the Roman Empire. As a consequence of its use by alien peoples, the com- plex verbal forms and constructions of classical Greek disappeared. Many characteristic Semitic idioms were carried over into the Greek, and its vocabulary enlarged. The result was a simple, direct, expressive language, combining the pic- turesqueness and concreteness of the Hebrew with the larger and more scientific and philoso- phical vocabulary of the (Jreek. Thus the com- posite dialect used by the New Testament writers was marvelously adapted to their purpose, and, by virtue of its simplicity and force, fitted to exercise through the medium of translations the powerful and beneficial influence which it subsequently exerted upon German and English language and literature.

(3) The llihte, Yieired as Literature, shares the general characteristics of the Oriental and more specifically of the Semitic group to which it belongs. The Occidental student, as in the Koran, feels at once the lack of systematic ar- rangement. The type of thought is intuitive rather than logical. Scientific method and inter- est are wanting. Instead, the religious motive is dominant. Not metre or rhythm of sound, but the rhythm of thought — that is, the repetition of the same idea or its antithesis — is the essence of its poetry. Concrete pictures and vivid figures are prominent in its prose, as well as in its poetry. Almost every form of literature is repre- sented in the Bible, from the war song, the lament, and the lyric, to the rhapsody and the jjhilosophical drama. Parables, fables, enigmas, proverbs, stories, biographies, epistles. oration.s, and prayers, are all found in this library, repre- sentative of the literary activity of the Israel- itish race. Among the more specific character- istics of biblical literature may be noted its naturalness, its realism, the love of external nature which it reflects, its practical optimism, which rests upon the recognition of a divine pur- pose for good realizing itself in all life, and its exalted moral tone. It is also characterized by a remarkable combination of realism and idealism ( starting with the actual, which they never ig- nore, tiie biblical writers are constantly predict- ing and striving for the realization of the com- plete ideal which is ever before their eyes.

Of the two Testaments, the Old undoubtedly contains more that deserves a place among the world's greatest literature. Certain portions of the Gospels, because of their simple directness and vividness, and certain of Paul's wonderful appeals and rhapsodies are accounted great, measured simply by literary canons ; but as a rule, the New Testament writers gave little heed to form in their zeal to apply the principles of Christianity to the needs of human life. While the New Testament represents the writings of a religious body, the Old is the literature of a race. It abounds in passages and books which are recognized as unsurpassed for their vigor or dramatic force, beauty or grandeur. The literary merit of the different books varies greatly, since the Old Testament reflects the different stages in the literary histcny of the Israelites. The Song of Deborah, certain of the prophetic narratives, the sermons of Isaiah, the messages of inspiration and comfort in Isaiah xl. to Iv.. certain of the Psalms, and the Book of Job represent some of the high-water nuirks of Hebrew literature. (4) The Authorship of the different parts of the Bible is a subject which has received the careful attention of scholars during the past two or three centuries, with the resiilt that the Jewish traditions, hitherto accepted without question, have been largely abandoned in the light of the internal evidence fron the books themselves. The Bible is the work, not merely of a dozen, but of scores of devoted prophets, priests, sages, psalmists, apostles, and editors. Most of its books are recognized as composites, containing citations from earlier and later sources, joined together in their present form by faithful copyists and editors who thus preserved them. The Book of Proverbs, for example, probably eml>odies the crystallized experience of fifty or a hundred wise men, living at ditVerent periods, and studying life from many different points of view. The liilile, therefore, is the expression of the many-sided experiences and revelations vouchsafed to the truth-