Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 02.djvu/369

AVERELL. the United States army; but retired on the 31st of the same month. He invented a form of asphalt pavement now in general use, the Averell insulating conduits for wires and conductors, and a method for manufacturing cast-steel direct from the iron ore in one operation.

AVER'NUS (Lat., Gk. "Aopms, Aornos, usu- ally derived from a, a, priv, -(- 6pi'ts, ornis, bird), now Lago d'Averno. A small, nearly circular lake in Campania, Italy, situated between Cunut, Puteoli, and Baiæ. It is about a mile and a half in circumference, and occupies the crater of an extinct volcano. It is in some places as deep as 180 feet, and is almost completely shut in by steep and wooded heights. The sulphurous and mephitic vapors arising from the lake were believed in ancient times to kill the birds that flew over it. Owing to its gloomy and awful aspect, it became the centre of almost all the fables of the ancients respecting the world of shades. Here was situated Homer's Nekyia, or entrance to the underworld; here the Cimmmerians are said to have dwelt — a people who lived in deep caverns, without ever coming into the light of day, and imparted oracles learned beneath the earth; here also were placed the grove of Hecate and the grotto of the Cumean Sibyl. Agrippa caused the dense woods to be thinned, by which the place lost most of its wildness; and by his orders Cocceius constructed the famous tun- nel through the mountain to Cumæ, a work of comparative ease, considering that the hills round about are composed of volcanic tufa. The lake was also connected in ancient times with the Gulf of Baiæ.

A'VE RO'MA IM'MORTA'LIS. A work by F. Marion Crawford (1898) on studies of Rome.

AVERROËS, a-ver'ro-ez (c.1126-98). A famous Spanish-Arabian philosopher and jurist, born at Cordova. His father and grandfather had been great jurists. His grandfather wrote works on Arabic civil and religious law, and it was only natural that Averroës should turn to law. At Cordova he studied theology and philosophy under Tofail and medicine under Zuhr. His father instructed him in jurisprudence. By Tofail he was introduced to Abu Yakub Yusuf, the Caliph of Morocco. Averroës, however, did not stay long in Morocco. In 1169 he was appointed judge in Seville, and then at his native town, Cordova. In 1182 he was appointed physician to the Caliph of Morocco, but again he left to take a judgeship in Cordova. Being accused of doctrines contrary to orthodox Mohammedanism, he was deprived of his office and exiled to Lucena, where he lived in great poverty. Again he was called to Morocco, where he died.

Averroës regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all the philosophers, and the one who alone was able to attain perfection. His commentaries on the works of Aristotle (extant in Hebrew and Latin translations) exerted a great influence on the scholastic school in Europe. He opposed the orthodox school, and insisted that the Koran must he explained in the light of reason, and not along mystical lines, as Algazali had done. The latter had written a work against philosophy, The Destruction of Philofsophy. This was answered by Averroës in The Destruction of the Destruction, which was translated into Latin by Locatellus (1497-1529). In medicine Averroës sided with Aristotle as against Galen; his medical work, Colliget, appeared in Latin (Venice, 1482 and 1514). His complete works were published in 1552 at Venice. For more extended bibliography consult Renan, Averroès et l'averroïsme (Paris, 1852); Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar, 1899).

AVERSA, a-ver'sji. An episcopal city in Southern Italy, 12 miles north of Naples (Map: Italy', J 7). It has a cathedral and monasteries, a famous insane asylum equipped with everything to amuse and solace the unfortunates, and an excellent asylum for foundlings. It is famous for asprino, a sparkling white wine, and for oil, silk, fruit, and melons. It was near the site of the ancient Atella, whence came the Atellanæ fabulæ, coarse farces that in time developed into comedy. The new town was founded in 1029 by the Normans. Population (commune), in 1881, 21,000; in 1901, 23,477.

AVERULINO, a-va'rao-le'n6, . See.

A'VERY, (1844—). An American author, born at Erie, Mich. He fought in the Civil War and retired with the rank of sergeant-major; graduated at the University of Michigan in 1871; taught in various Ohio schools; and from 1893 to 1897 was a member of the State Senate. Among his many publications are elementary text-books in physics and chemistry, which, in various editions, have been much used in the public schools throughout the United States. He is also the author of Words Correctly Spoken (Cleveland, 1887), and in 1895 began the preparation of a Popular History of the United States, to be published in twelve volumes.

AVERYSBORO, ft'vcr-Iz-btlr'A. A village in Harnett County, N. C, about 20 miles north- east of Fayetteville. Here, on March 16, 1865, during the Civil War, a Confederate force under Hardee made a stand against Slocum's wing of Sherman's advancing army, but was quickly driven back, and during the night retreated upon Smithfield. The Union loss was 77 killed and 477 wounded; the Confederate about 700, includ- ing over 200 prisoners.

AVES, a'vez (Lat., plur. of avis, bird). A class of the phylum Chordata, the birds most distinctly characterized by their exclusive possession of feathers as a covering, and by their structural adaptations to flight. See.

AVES,, los -i'vAs, or BIRD ISLANDS. A group of small islands off the north coast of Venezuela, South America, belonging to that republic. They lie east of the Dutch island Buen Ayre, and have extensive guano deposits.

AVESNES, a'ven'. The capital of an arrondissement in the Department of Le Nord, France, on the Helpe, 50 miles southeast of Lille. The Church of Saint Nicholas is a fine building dating from the Thirteenth Century. Also noteworthy are the Communal College, a public library, and museum. Manufactures of woolens and hosiery are the chief industries. Avesnes was prominent as a centre of conflict during the Fifteenth Century, and was fortified during the reign of Louis XIV., according to the system of Vauban. It was bombarded after the battle of