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ATHENS. not informed. This prosperity and the introduction of a metallic currency do not seem to have helped the small landowners or the peasants, and though they loyally supported the Government against the conspiracy of Cylon (about 630 B.C.), their condition seems to have grown worse rapidly, perhaps in consequence of a war with Megara. To help them against the oppression under which they suffered, it was decided to form a written code of laws, and about B.C. 621 this work was intrusted to Draco (q.v.). His labors did not give sufficient relief. The small farmers were driven to borrow money, mortgaging their land, and thus rapidly falling into the power of the rich, while the tenants, who rented land, were often reduced to slavery and even sold out of the country, from inability to pay their debts. A revolution seemed imminent, but was averted by the wise legislation of Solon (q.v.) in B.C. 594-93 or 592-91. By cancellation of all debts involving the freedom of the debtor, and by freeing all in slavery for debt, he relieved the freeman, while, by the substitution of the Eubœic for the Æginetan standard in coinage, he brought Athens in alliance with Chalcis and opened the way to the development of the western trade. His great service was the reform of the constitution on a really democratic basis, though outwardly it was still a timocracy. Four classes were now recognized, according to the wealth of the individual citizens, and though the archonship was open only to the first class, and no offices were granted to those in the fourth, yet as all citizens could vote in the Ecclesia (q.v.), and sit in the courts, now established, the election and judgment of the magistrates was in the hands of all and not a privileged few.

The old Council of the Areopagus, composed henceforth of ex-archons, was made the supreme guardian of the laws, and a new senate of 400, chosen equally from the four tribes, was instituted to prepare the business for the Ecclesia. Though the situation was much alleviated by the reforms of Solon, the political parties still continued their struggles. The party of the nobles, living chiefly in the city and the Attic plain, was known as that of the Plain; the moderate party, which was satisfied with the new order, was largely composed of the middle class, and, from the residence of many of them, was called that of the Coast; a third party of a more radical type was that of the Hills, for most of its members seem to have come from the mountain regions. Aided by these Pisistratus (q.v.) made himself tyrant (B.C. 561), and, though twice driven out, finally handed down his power to his sons, who ruled till the murder of Hipparchus (B.C. 514) and expulsion of Hippias (B.C. 510). During this time the forms of the constitution had been observed, though all offices had been filled by the friends of the tyrants. The period was one of growth in foreign influence, and internal prosperity. The tyrants beautified the city with new temples, introduced a better supply of water, and inaugurated more splendid festivals, thus producing greater contentment with their rule.

After the overthrow of this tyranny by Clisthenes, party strife broke out afresh; but Clisthenes finally succeeded in securing a revision of the constitution which removed entirely the danger of local parties. As a basis for his division of the people, he took the villages or small districts scattered through Attica. These were divided into 30 groups, so arranged that 10 groups were along the coast, 10 in the inland, and 10 about the city. By combining one group from each of these three regions, he formed 10 tribes, which he named after ancient Attic heroes (Erechtheïs, Aigeïs, Pandionis, Leontis, Acamantis, Oineïs, Cecropis, Hippothontis, Aiantis, Antiochis). These tribes were the chief divisions of the people, and from this time the number ten regularly recurs among the various governing boards of Athens. The old Senate of 400 was replaced by a new one of 500, which became the executive organ of the Government, supervising all officials, and the finances, and even the military management. For convenience in the transaction of routine business the year was divided into 10 periods, and during each period the 50 senators of a tribe, the so-called Prytanes, acted as a standing committee, though the whole body met daily. Along with the new constitution an increase in the citizenship took place, and, though the old property classes and their privileges were undisturbed, the increase of wealth had largely increased the number who could hold office. With Clisthenes the Athenian democracy was fairly established, though other changes in the direction of equalization of privileges, such as the election of archons by lot, the establishment of pay for service in the courts and at the assembly, and a reduction of the power and influence of the Areopagus, were carried out in the course of the Fifth and Fourth centuries, not always to the advantage of the State. The new Government at once proved its value by the rapid advance of Athenian power, which was raised to an undreamed-of height by the repulse of the Persians, and the establishment of the Delian League, which made Athens mistress of the Ægean and its islands. This period (B.C. 480-430), which culminated in the age of Pericles, is the Golden Age of Athenian greatness, and to it belong the greatest triumphs of Athenian genius, the poetry of Æschylus and Sophocles, and the sculpture of Phidias. From this time the history of Athens is merged in the general history of Greece (q.v.). Though the Peloponnesian War deprived Athens of much of her power, her place as the centre of Hellenic culture remained unshaken, and even when the battle of Chæronea (B.C. 338) deprived her of political position, the philosophic schools and the traditions of the past continued to attract foreigners. The democratic constitution was overthrown by Antipater (B.C. 322), but its forms were afterwards restored, and many of the official titles continued to exist long after the incorporation of the city in the Roman Empire.

Under Roman rule Athens prospered, and became the great centre of education for the youth of aristocratic Rome. (See Capes, University Life in Ancient Athens, London, 1877.) The Emperor Hadrian, in particular, enlarged the city to the northeast, where a new quarter was named Hadrianapolis in his honor, and built a gymnasium and library. It was about this time that Herodes Atticus erected his Odeum as a memorial of his wife Regilla, and repaired the Stadium. The fame of the philosophic schools continued to attract students, though with the spread of Christianity they lost influence and were finally closed by Justinian in A.D. 529. During the following centuries many