Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 01.djvu/767

APOLOGY. ascribed to Plato and Xenoplion; the Ajioloiiii for the Christians, by TertuUian, and in nianv oilier defenses of the Christians, written by Justin Martyr, Aristides, Athenagoras, Tatian, Theopliilus, Orii;en, Kusebius, ^Minueius Felix, Arnobius, Lactantius. Augustine, Orosius. and others. The attacks parried or retorted in these apologetieal works are suoli as eliarges of athe- ism, want of philosophical knowledge, anti-social tenets, etc. Both the charges and the refutations Iirought forward serve to give us an insight into the character of the times when these works were written. Thus, in the Apology by TertuUian, it is curious to )5nd a formal argument employed to refute the assertion that the spread of Christianity was the cause of "earthquakes" and other natural phenomena which had occurred in some parts of the Roman Empire. After the Fourth Century, when the Church was made dominant under the Roman Emperors, apologetieal writings were less called for; but Bartholus Edessenus and Raymundus Martinus wrote against the Jews and the Jlohammedans. In the Fifteenth Century, when the revival of learning placed Christianity in apparent oppo- sition to the Platonic philosophy, ilarsilius Ficinus wrote in defense of revelation: and, some time after the Reformation, the spread of free- thinking and skepticism in England was opposed by a variety of apologetieal works, chiefly maintaining the points that Christianity is a divine revelation, Christ a divine Messenger, and His Church a divine institution. The defense of Christianity on grounds of reason came now to be treated as a distinct branch of theology, under the name of Apologetics. Among the numerous apologetic works by Protestants may be men- tioned those by Grotius (De Veritate, etc./, But- ler (Aniilofjy of Religion, yntiiral and Revealed ), Lardner {('redibilitu of the Gospel History), L"land, Addison Soame .Tenyns (Intermil Evi- dences of the Christian Religion), Hugh Farmer, Bishop Watson {Apology for Christianity) , Paley ( h'videnees of Christianity, and Horw Panlin(s). Among Roman Catholic apologetic writers the most eminent are Pascal. Houteville. Guenee, Bergier, Mayr, and Chateaubriand.

In the Nineteenth Century a great number of apologetic works liy Xeaiider, Tholuck, and others were called forth in reply to Strauss's Das Lehcn Jcsu and the Mc dc Jisiis by .Joseph Ernest Renan. Later came the attacks from ag- nostic, materialistic, and other philosophi-scien- tific sources, and these have been replied to by Christian scholars, as A. Ebraid, Apologetics, second edition (Giitersloh, 1878-801: English translations, three volumes (Edinburgh, 1886- 87); P. Schauz (R. C.) (Freiburg. 1805-98); English translations, three volumes (Dublin, 1807); A. B. Bruce, Apologetics (Xew York, 1892). Manifestly these works are written to meet a passing need, and few of them retain much value after a few years. AP'OMOR'PHINE (Gk. an6, npo. away from -- morphine) . .- artificial alkaloid made by heating morphine with hydvoclilovic acid un- der pressure. The salt of apomorphine em- ployed in medicine is the hydrochlorate. which occurs in fine whitish, needle-shaped crystals that rapidly absorb moisture from the air, becoming green. It is the best-known of the so- called systemic emetics (see Emetic), and causes vomiting promptly, within five to twenty minutes, whether given by mouth or hypoder- inically. This emesis is due to direct action on the vomiting centre in the medulla. It is re- peated frequently, with little nausea, after the stomach has been emptied, and is accompanied by marked muscular rela.xation. The respira- tion and circulation are also depressed, and large doses may cause convulsions, followed by paraly- sis. As an emetic it is used when sudden action is desired or when swallowing is difficult or im- possible. It is used also in small do.ses as a sedative expectorant. (See Expectorant.) It has also been recommended as a hypnotic, and is said to act usually within ten or fifteen minutes. For this inirpose a small dose is given hypodermically after lying down. If the patient moves about after taking it, vomiting is said to be likely to occur. AP'ONEURO'SIS (Gk. dTowiJpuo-is. end of a muscle where it becomes tendon, from itrb. apo, away -f pevpov. neuron, sinew, tendon). An ana- tomical term for a sheet-like expansion of strong fibrous tissue, of which there are many examples in the human body. For the sake of convenience, it is generally confined to expansions from the tendons of muscles, as the lumbar aponeurosis. If a tendon is very broad and expanded, as that of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen, it is said to be aponeurotic. Some muscles, as those on the shoulder-blade, are partially covered with a tendinous expansion, to which some of their fibres are attached: this is termed the aponeu- rotic origin of the muscle; it gives the muscle a more extensive attachment, without adding ma- terially to weight. APOPH'YLLITE (Gk, djr6, apo, away + (puWov. phyllitn, leaf). A hydrated potassium- calcium silicate that crystallizes in the tetrago- nal system, and belongs to the zeolite family. It has a pearly lustre, and in color is usually white or grayish, but sometimes of a light green, yel- low, or red tint. This mineral occurs usually in basalt, and the older rocks, with other members of the zeolites in Greenland, Iceland, India, and at Bergen Hill, N. J., in the United States, where large crystals were found during the construction of the tunnel there, and also in the Lake Supe- rior region. It is named from its tendency to exfoliate under the blow])i]ie. AP'OPLEXY ((ik. dTToirXjjJia, apoplexia, from dri, away + irXiJo-crtiv, plvssein, to strike). A term applied to an engorgement of blood, with or without extravasation, in or ujjon any organ, as the lirain {cerebral apoplexy), the spinal cord or lungs {pulmonary apoplexy). As popularly used, the term denotes vaguely a condition arising from some disturbance of the brain circulation. In medicine three distinct affections of the brain circulation are understood: cerebral embolism, cerebral thrombosis, and cerebral hemorrhage. These differ in their cause and somewhat in their symptoms. In cerebral embolism there is a sudden blocking up of one of the blood vessels of the brain by some foreign liody in the circulating blood. Such foreign bodies frequently come from diseases of the joints or pleura', or sometimes from the placenta in pregnant women; but more often from the valves of the heart, which in a number of septic diseases, as rheumatism, t.yphoid, gonorrhea, etc., have minute growths upon them. these l)ecome detached, and are swept into the circulation, and may block up a brain artery.