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262 NELLORE Iron-ore, chiefly in the form of sand, is collected and smelted, according to native methods, in niany places. It is worked up into tools, but no steel is manufactured. Saltpetre is made in several villages, but in small quantities, by refining down the nitrous earth to be found on the surface. Wild animals are comparatively rare in Nellore. Tigers are now almost unknown, except when a stray one wanders across the mountains from Cuddapah. Leopards, bears, sámbhar deer, and occasionally bison, are still to be found among the western hills. Antelope, spotted deer, and wild hog are generally distributed, while the small game comprise snipe, duck, bustard, and floriken. Venomous reptiles abound. In 1881, the total number of reported deaths from wild beasts was 1, and from snake bite, 117. The total amount paid in rewards for killing wild beasts and poisonous snakes was £16. The figures for 1883 were-deaths from wild beasts, 29; from snake bites, 99; rewards paid, £64. History.—Nellore possesses no independent history of its own. In primitive times it formed part of the ancient Division of Telingána, or the Telugu-speaking country, and passed successively under the rule of the Yadava, Chálukya, Kalyána, and Ganapatti dynasties. Lying on the frontier of the Tamil country, and not far from Orissa, it was frequently partitioned between the rival kingdoms which advanced or retreated during this troubled period. Many of the old temples in the District show by inscriptions that they were built or restored by Rajá Krishna Deva-ráyalu, the most powerful monarch of Vijayanagar of the Narapatti line, who reigned from 1509 to 1530. The earliest chieftain that can be localized in Nellore is named Mukunti, who, according to local tradition, lived in the 11th century, and was tributary to the Chola Rájás. It is possible that the tract was to a certain extent uninhabited till a comparatively recent period, and like the Districts of Cuddapah, Bellary, Anantapur, and Karnúl, formed part of the so-called desert of Dandaka. Hence, perhaps, the absence of any connected history or tradition, earlier than the time of the Chola kings. After Mukunti, in the 12th century, came one Siddi Rájá; and during the same period, the north of the District is said to have been under the rule of a number of petty chiefs, belonging to the Yadava or shepherd caste. The oldest native family now existing in Nellore is that of the Rájá of Venkatagiri, who professes to trace back an unbroken descent for twenty-seven generations. The traditions of the family recount numerous wars with the Muhammadans, who probably first invaded the country under Kafur in 1310, in the reign of Alá-úd-dín; but it was not permanently conquered until the time of the Kutab Shahi dynasty at Golconda in 1687, when it was finally brought under Muhammadan dominion.