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Rh West, the Bolsheviks turned toward the construction of socialism in Russia, transforming the Communist International into an instrument to achieve this aim. A revolution now in the capitalist countries would prove an embarrassment, even if it were peacefully achieved under non-Bolshevik auspices, because of the dangers of civil war, counter-revolution, and international conflict which it would provoke. In Germany from 1928 on, the Bolsheviks tricked themselves out with an ultra-revolutionary line but concentrated most of their energies in combatting other working-class parties. They declared that “the chief enemy” of genuine democracy and socialism was the German Socialist Party. They referred to its leaders and members as “Social-Fascists.” On important occasions the German Communist Party co-operated with the Nazis in common action against the Weimar Republic. Even after Hitler’s accession to power and the outlawing of the Communist Party, the Communist International denounced the German Socialist Party as “the chief enemy” of the working class.

This line was changed in 1935 at the Seventh Congress of the Communist International when Hitler’s will to war had become unmistakable even to the Kremlin. The new turn ushered in the period of the Popular Front. The Popular Front was a Peace Front agitating for a collective security that would freeze the existing national boundaries of Europe and invoke sanctions against any country sending troops beyond its borders. The Popular Front was intended to embrace any group, independently of its social programme, which accepted this programme. In all Popular Fronts during this period the Communist Parties of the world were at the extreme right of the Coalition, arguing against any social changes that would imperil national unity. In France they sided with the Radical Socialists, who were conservative, against the Socialist Party. In England they called for a political coalition between the Liberal Party of Lloyd George and the English Labour Party. In Spain they were to the right of the Republicans and contested bitterly the social reforms proposed by the Socialists and Anarchists which would infringe on the rights of private property. The Communists, who yesterday had been ultra-revolutionary, to-day feared that even minor social reforms would create domestic opposition and chaos, strengthen Hitler, and drive democratic England and France into Hitler’s camp. For the same reason, during this period