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Rh The four women for whom the largest claims have been made are Cleopatra, Theodora, Madame de Pompadour, and Catherine II. of Russia.

Cleopatra is the most legendary of all the eventful women of history. But her influence on affairs has been enormously exaggerated, and she herself has been the subject of romantic myths that are great poetry but poor history. Ever since Pascal’s brief comment on her in his Pensées, she has become the perennial illustration of the way in which the history of the world depends upon trifling details. “Cleopatra’s nose, had it been shorter, the whole aspect of the world would have been different.” Pascal’s words have stimulated important reflections on the nature of history, but the example he took was unfortunate. It seems a pity to destroy a pretty story, but the true story is perhaps just as interesting.

A judicious evaluation of what we know about Cleopatra and her times makes it clear that her nose had little to do with her influence on the younger Pompey, Cæsar, and Antony. What is more important, her influence on them had very little effect upon the history of the world. She made a great difference to Antony’s life, but little to the history of the Roman Empire. Cæsar would have triumphed over Pompey in any event; Octavian and Antony would have had to settle the question of succession, to the mantle of Cæsar, and the odds of victory were with the former even if the latter had been immune to Cleopatra’s charms. What brought the great Romans to Egypt were the exigencies of political warfare together with the necessity of ensuring that this Nile-blessed country would remain the granary of Italy, then in the process of acute agricultural decline. While in Egypt they naturally improved on their opportunity, but the history of Rome would have been substantially the same if there had never been a Cleopatra.

Like most women who have played some role in history, Cleopatra’s influence was achieved by influencing men. And like most women who have influenced eventful men, Cleopatra owed her success not so much to her beauty as to qualities of intelligence, will, personality, and an obscure appeal that does not depend upon face or figure. She seems to have been petite and daintily built, but Plutarch tells us that Octavia, Antony’s wife, whom Antony deserted for Cleopatra, compared favourably