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402 independent republic. This may be compared to the later policy of Russia in invading the freedom of Finland. It was cruel to the subjects; yet it was regarded as a political necessity by the government. Like the State, the Church at Novgorod was in a way self-contained. In the earlier times, throughout the rest of Russia the clergy were more or less Greek, or at least under the influence of the Greek patriarch. But at Novgorod they were entirely Russian, and the archbishop was elected by the citizens without waiting for any investiture from the metropolitan of Kiev. He took the first place of dignity in the republic; in acts of State his name was cited before all other names. Novgorod wanted to have a metropolitan; but that was not allowed, and now Ivan's vigorous action put an end to both its political and its ecclesiastical independence.

The remarkable contrasts which the life of Ivan contains have given rise to conflicting views about his character. The Polish poet Miçkiewicz describes him as "the most finished tyrant known in history." The historian Karamsin—in his eloquent denunciation of this tyrant which he read to Alexander, with the liberal tsar's approval—writes, "His conversion would have scandalised the world and shaken belief in providence. He had advanced too far into hell to be able to turn back." Karamsin regards him as a prince born vicious and cruel, miraculously brought into ways of virtue for a time, and abandoning himself to fury in his later years; and Kostomarof follows on similar lines. On the other hand, Soloviev distrusts the partisan tales on which his evil reputation rests. He was opposed by the nobles whose independence he was limiting, and they would be only too ready to encourage discreditable stories about their ruler. But M. Ramabaut calls attention to one terribly significant piece of evidence—a document preserved at the monastery of Cyril, in which Ivan asks for the prayers of the Church for his victims by name—how characteristic is this of his mixture of religion and cruelty! This document contains 986 proper names, and references