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Rh lived the life of ascetics, either separately or in communities. These people—as we shall see in the next chapter—largely escaped from ecclesiastical discipline. The monks to a great extent shook off the yoke of the bishops.

The centre of this hierarchical system was the bishop; the lower clergy were his ministers; the higher clergy were but bishops of important cities with extended authority over their brother bishops. Episcopacy was the essential characteristic of the Church organisation.

The clergy were drawn from all ranks of life. No special training was considered necessary to fit them for their duties, and some came direct from secular work to administer the affairs of the Church. In the smaller cities bishops carried on businesses for their livelihood—as farmers, shepherds, shopkeepers, etc. It was expressly ordered that a bishop should not neglect his flock by travelling out of his parish for business purposes, take interest for loans, or lower the wages of his workpeople. But where the funds of a Church were sufficient to support its bishop hia engagement in secular affairs was discouraged. Thus we read in the Canons of Athanasius: "thou levitical priest, wherefore dost thou sell or buy? Unto thee are given the first-fruits of all," etc. So lucrative did the post become that in some cases it was sought for the sake of its emoluments; and the bishops had to be warned that the money at their disposal should be used for the assistance of widows and orphans or as loans to other persons in need. The council of Chalcedon expressly forbade bishops, priests, and monks to engage in commerce. During the fourth century it was taken for granted that the bishop was a married man. Thus in the Canons of Athanasius, the Pauline precept is repeated that "the bishop must be in all things blameless, married to one wife," etc.; and again, "The