Page:The Building News and Engineering Journal, Volume 22, 1872.djvu/434

 412 Cisterns for water-closets must contain two alternating valves, so that while one is open the other shall be closed, and so constructed as not to deliver more than 1} gallons of water ata flush. Every bath to which water is supplied by the Corporation is provided with a well-fitted and perfectly watertight ground outlet-plug. No overflow pipes from baths are allowed, except such as those above described as detective or warning pipes. The Corporation have lately instituted a stamping and testing establishment, where all kinds of fittings may be put through suitable tests. It is open to all-comers on paying the following fees :—Bib and stop-taps, 2d. each ; ball-taps, 3d. ; water-closets, 6d. ; closet cisterns, 3d. —= = THE PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.—IV. Fp HE principles already laid down in dis- cussing the subject of window design I will here endeavour to illustrate. This matter of window design may hardly seem to allow any very different treatment than already noticed, and a writer discussing any theory based on common-sense notions of fitness appears to be repeating mere truisms in inculeating certain ideas or prin- ciples on sucha subject. But in architectural art, as in morals, the enforcement of simple truths seems to be necessary to aright under- standing, the conventionality of habit and custom being so strong as often to enslave the mind. The primary objects of a window being—(1) for the admission of light, (2) for outlook, and (3) for ventilation, we must ever look to these in the fundamental means we employ of fulfilling them: such as form of proportion, of opening, and other constructive detail. Climate, or the power of the sun in different parts, determines in a great measure the size and kind of light-aperture required. The Greeks and Romans hardly knew them in the way we do; the Greek temples were probably lighted by a sort of clerestory, or sinking in the roof, as suggested by Mr. Fergusson. The Romans placed them in strict accordance with actual wants. In south aspects they were small and placed low to exclude solar heat. Alberti says all windows for light were to be placed high, but they were of rare occurrence, and the chambers at Pompeii, with few exceptions, had no windows, but were lighted by the door chiefly. With us, on the contrary, light is the most essential element after air itself; windows form the chief means of expression in the majority of our buildings ; and since the introduction of large sheets of glass and the abolition of a window-tax, they have become more signifi- cant than ever in our architectural art. Go to Oxford, or any continental cities where ancient monastic-looking buildings abound, and the eye is at once impressed by the austerity and extreme heaviness of the archi- tecture, which contrasts very unfavourably with the open light and predominant fenestration of modern cities. Indeed, it is one distinguishing mark of our civilisation, and I think a very expressive one. Window design may be considered under two heads—First, as regards external design ; and second, as to internal design. The sketches I have given seem to embody the essentials before alluded to, and much that is common to both Medieval and Italian examples will be found in them ; for instance, the deeply splayed and moulded jambs and heads, and the square-shaped heads and ex- ternal frame-work or covering. There is much fitness and beauty of expression in the Medizeval window, with its label or drip mould- ing, its tracery, and the moulded and receding jambs or reveals, splayed to invite and assist the inflow of the solar beams. Jere the Classical art student may learn. Then there is the elegant conjunction of windows, and the useful and ornamental cover of Italian fenes- tration, with a free and ample breadth and THE BUILDING NEWS. space of opening. The Medievalist can im- prove by studying these, and also the greater simplicity of adjustment of sashes and casements afforded by the unobstructed mullionless window. ‘The simplest condi- tions of a light-aperture seem to be per- fectly fulfilled in such an opening as in sketch No.1, where we have an oblong pro- portion of unobstructed opening with splayed head and jambs. Such a form, moreover, easily adapts itself to ordinary construction, whereas, any curvilinear or polygonal shaped opening, asin Fig. A, would be open to ob- jection on that account, besides the difficulty of fitting the sashes. A segmental-headed opening can easily be spanned by a lintel either of stone, terra-cotta, or some lard impervious material or compound, while the gentle curve assists the intromission of light and takes off that depressive effect often observed in straight lines ; constructionally, too, it is stronger. The semi-circular arch admits of greater freedoin, and is, perhaps, the most natural form for covering an open- ing; the introduction of an under trefoil wonderfully enhances the effect, and this relief can be obtained either in stone or in the outer lining or frame of the sash (Fig. 2). In the framing of wood sashes and frames, curved or circular work is not to be preferred to straight for strength or economy ; hence it is of some importance to combine the wstheticand the technic. Sketch 3 shows how such a compromise may be effected by cutting or forming the head in such a manner as to produce a pleasing effect, while it allows the wooden frame and sashes or casements to be composed of straight pieces. The recession of a window in a thick wall may often be made pleasing, while a natural sort of protection 1s thereby obtained for it. The piers, or the interfenestral spaces, are the weakest parts of outer walls, and by thickening these parts we get this recession combined with strength, and an easy means of connecting windows vertically. The dreary miles of wall and square holes which line our towns point forcibly to the necessity of doing something in the way of relief economically. After the condition of a light-admitting epen- ing has been fulfilled, protection from the sun’s rays and inclement weather has to be thought of. Our pediments and entablatures of the Classic style afford us such protec- tion, but cannot something be devised, quite, if not more, effectual and expressive, and with less direct inference as to origin? Why should the ordinances or conventional methods of Classic art be universally adopted ? In the Gothic style we have, similarly, the hood or label, which forms both a slight pro- tection and a useful drip to throw off the wet. There is no reason why either of these types, well as they may serve their purpose, should be invariably used. A compromise between the two forms, avoiding the ostentation of the one and the inadequate protection afforded by a small label moulding, seems to be what we require. Our freely-treated Anglicised Italian examples occasionally show useful modifications of this feature. Sketches 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, &c,, are indications of such treat- ment. The protection we require may either be obtained by recessing our windows in splayed or ntoulded jambs and lintels, or pro- jecting some covering, as a pediment and cor- nice, as in No. 7 and 8. The latter method has the advantage of throwing off the wet more effectually, and giving greater shade in astrong sun. I think both methods may often be combined, and a far bolder and more ex- pressive character be the result. (See Fig. 9.) ‘The appearance of square holes, and the framework or ‘stuck on” look of our Clas- sically designed windows, would then be avoided, and greater relief be given to our facades. There are some noticeableattempts of this kind to be seen among recent struc- tures—an effort to break through customary conventionalities of art. Gothic windows have this great superiority over ‘“ Classic” ones—namely, that they appear to be integral May 24, 1872. parts of the walls, or ‘‘built in,” while the latter frequently havea ‘put on” appear- ance, but if greater study were bestowed in connecting the lines of windows, either hori- zontally or vertically, by the means indicated, the ordinary Italian window would have the preference. The old Scotch Baronial style affords some good examples of ‘ built in” windows, if I may use the term, but if com- mon-sense and science are consulted, nothing in the way of precedent is wanted. Another point to be noticed in designing windows is to make them accord in form and size with their position. There is a miserable lack of discernment here. We see pointed windows close under straight mouldings, and eaves and square-headed ones in gables. Here is a radical error and sin against fitness in every sense. It requires no verbal demon- stration to prove this. Conjoined lights, as couplets and triplets, are exceptions, or any series of small openings. But this concerns more another part of our subject—‘ Com- position of Form.” Again, light-apertures should be placed with some regard to regularity both as to their relation to construction and in point of size—a mural repose being necessary. It is, or should be, obvious that after the plan of a building has been properly considered as regards the disposition of the several parts and the means of communication provided, the lighting is the most important matter ; and yet, we find an apparent disregard of this necessary element in a great many of the designs that emanate from the Gothic school, a window being placed here or there, in this corner or that nook, just as most convenient, or to please the whim of the designer, without reference to the amount of light required for the particular apartment, and, in some cases, for the mere sake of getting a window for effect. It may be said by the Gothicist that the style he uses allows the privilege of regulating his light apertures to actual requirements even in the same front, that he can place his large windows just where he requires them, and his small ones where lesser quantity of light is needed, without at all violating the har- mony of his composition by their dissimilarity or disparity of size; while the designer who takes Classic or Italian models is bound in strictness to adhere to some regular fenestral disposition or equality of opening in design- ing his windows. Now, this objection, which is one of the chiefest and most important the Gothicist can urge in favour of his style, is founded upon a misconception of real art design—a misconception of the fundamental principles I am endeavouring to illustrate, or, in other words, on the assumption that architectural art is based on an arbitrary code of expression, or on two ‘‘styles” or ‘“‘modes” of art which have been left us, and in which we fancy the whole science and creativeness of the art is centred—a farce. A simple law of use determines all such functions as windows; andif, in obedience to this law, a facade presents diversity of window-forms and sizes, irregularities of level, &c., in contravention to another law of fitness which should regulate the whole, or if such a front, by its want of harmony or homogeneity, offends against a reasonable de- mand of propriety by giving no apparent evidence for, or explanation of, its erratic character, there is defective design, an in- complete and inconsequent expression. Such inconsequent diversity of character is rampant just now in a great many designs, in which a studied irregularity and an ill-studied or haphazard arrangement are synonymous ; at least, the former is not altogether the result of well-considered plans. In our Gothic designs and buildings lately erected this diversity has shown itself, es- pecially in windows and their detail; in some instances we finda rational design for a light- aperture, but either misplaced in respect to position or spoilt by its connection with adjacent apertures. G. H. G.