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 58 TURKEY the Armenians by American missionaries) and the Jews, are recognized by the sultan as inde- pendent religious communities, with the priv- ilege of maintaining their own ecclesiastical organizations. Among the numerous peculiar sects are the Druses and Ansaries in Syria. The antagonism between the various religious bodies is stronger in Turkey than anywhere else, and they are far from observing toward each other the tolerance which is granted to them by the government. A new educational law promulgated in 1869 provided for the es- tablishment of elementary schools for both sexes in every commune, of schools of a high- er grade and gymnasiums or colleges in larger towns, of industrial and normal schools, and of a university, after German models, which was opened in Constantinople in February, 1870. There have since been established there a school of law, a military school, one for engi- neers, and one of artillery, and a naval school on the island of Khalki in the sea of Marmora. The government has declared its intention to make the schools more and- more national, and to abolish the old Arabian system of instruc- tion. Outside of the capital the progress of education is slow, chiefly owing to the innate aversion of the Turkish mind for mental effort. The government, however, seeks to promote national literature, and recently passed a copy- right law. The Christian communities strive to emulate European systems of education, es- pecially the Greeks and the Protestants, and there are several good Catholic schools; but the most efficient institutions are the Robert college (American) at Constantinople, the new Protestant college at Beyrout, and the schools of the Prussian deaconesses in various places. The empire abounds in archaeological trea- sures. The most important results have been achieved in the present century by the exca- vations in Assyria, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Cyprus. Turkey contains a number of for- eign (called Frank) or extra-territorial com- munities, placed under the protection of resi- dent diplomatic and consular agents. They originated in the Levant trading companies, many of the early English, French, Italian, German, and other settlers and adventurers becoming permanent residents ; and their num- bers have been greatly increased by the rapid progress of European monopolies in railways, finance, trade, and industry, and in all Turk- ish enterprises. The representation of for- eign powers in Turkey dates from the 16th century, and has been protected by the so- called "capitulations" and subsequent treaty stipulations, affording full safety to diplomatic and consular officers, and vesting them with judicial powers and every right necessary to the interests of their constituencies. These include the richest Greek and English mer- chants, whose influence is almost boundless through their ambassadors and consuls. The native Christian subjects are called rayahs, and, whether Greeks or Slavs, chiefly belong to the Greek church, of the principal branch of which the czar is the supreme head, whence results the great influence of Russia. The social equal- ity which prevails among the Mussulmans en- ables persons of the lowest condition to rise to the highest ; but the rayahs have had no such opportunities, and, in addition to their hard struggles for subsistence, they have borne the brunt of Moslem fanaticism since the conquest of Constantinople, when the most influential Greeks (Fanariotes) made themselves service- able to their conquerors, while the masses of the Christians were regarded as outlaws. Shut out from all contact with European civiliza- tion, they lost their mental energy and ambi- tion, and became infected with Asiatic vices without acquiring the redeeming qualities of independence possessed by their conquerors, toward whom their outward obsequiousness and secret hatred increased in the measure of their helplessness and demoralization. The church became, under these circumstances, not only the idol of their faith, but also the only hope of their ultimate redemption through the influence of Christian nations. This abnormal condition of the rayah populations has more than once called for the intervention of for- eign powers, while remaining a chronic source of disaffection and disturbance. The succes- sive concessions which they received during the present century, under the pressure of dis- astrous events, have not materially lessened their burdens, although they now apparently enjoy equality before the law under the juris- diction of mixed courts. They are also excep- tionally admitted to official positions, and the latest decrees of the sultan remove all previous disabilities in this regard. But the Moham- medans respect no laws excepting those sanc- tioned by the Koran, and the officers charged with the execution of imperial decrees are gen- erally opposed to the boons they are intended to confer on Christians. Many of the Turkish officeholders are also notorious for venality and incapacity, especially in remote provinces, be- yond the immediate control of the vigilant for- eign ambassadors at the capital. The Armenian rayahs have greater ethnological affinities with the Turks than the Greeks and Slavs. Many of them prosper in official positions in the cap- ital, and as dragomans of foreign embassies, for which they are specially qualified by their adroitness in managing the pashas and their linguistic attainments. They are also clever financiers, and in that department eclipse both Greeks and Jews. But in Armenia proper their condition is made so deplorable by the Turkish officials and by the fearful ravages of the Kurds, that hundreds of Armenians have lately embraced Mohammedanism as the only alternative against these persecutions. The great Greek merchants are not rayahs, but pro- tected foreigners. The Jews are mostly poor. They are descendants of refugees from Spanish persecution, retain a Spanish dialect, and are obliged to wear a distinctive costume, except-