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 WAGNER (1854), which involved him in a controversy with Karl Vogt and others of the materialistic school, of which he was one of the most emi- nent opponents ; Der Kampfum die Seele (Got- tingen, 1857) ; and Vorstudien zu einer wissen- schaftlicJien Morphologic und Physiologic des menschlichen Gehirns ah Seelenorgans (2 vols., 1861-'3). II. Moritz Friedrich, a German natu- ralist, brother of the preceding, born in Bai- reuth, Oct. 3, 1813. He was engaged in busi- ness till 1834, after which he studied zoology and other sciences at Erlangen and Munich. The French government adjoined him to the scientific commission in Algeria (1 837-'8), and after studying geology at Gottingen he was enabled by the academy of Berlin to explore for three years the Black sea region, the Cau- casus, Armenia, Kurdistan, and Persia, and made extensive collections of natural history, which are now in the museums of Paris, Vien- na, and Munich. In company with Scherzer he travelled in. the United States, Central America, and the West Indies in 1852-'5 ; and at the instance of King Maximilian II. of Ba- varia he explored the province of Chiriqui and other parts of the isthmus of Panama in 1857- '8, and the E. part of the Andes in Ecuador in 1859. In 1860 he was appointed honorary professor at the university of Munich and di- rector of the ethnographical museum. Subse- quently he became known by his theories of migration in connection with those of Darwin. His works include Reisen in der RegentscTiafp Algier (3 vols., Leipsic, 1841); Der Kaukasus und das Land der Kosaclcen (2 vols., 1847); Reise nach Kolchis (1850); Reise nacJi dem Ararat und dem Hochlande Armeniens (Stutt- gart, 1850) ; and Reise nach Persien und dem Lande der Eurden (2 vols., Leipsic, 1852; Eng- lish translation, " Travels in Persia, Georgia, and Koordistan, with Sketches of the Cossacks and the Caucasus," 3 vols., London, 1854). He has also written, jointly with Scherzer, Reisen in Nordamerika (3 vols., Leipsic, 1854), and Die Republik Costa-Rica (1856). WAGNER, Rudolf Johannes, a German chemist, born in Leipsic, Feb. 13, 1823. He was at first a practical pharmaceutist and chemist, after- ward studied chemistry in Leipsic and Paris, and visited the principal factories and labora- tories in Europe. In 1851 he became professor of chemistry in Nuremberg, and in 1856 of technology at Wurzburg; and in 1858 he was also appointed inspector of technical studies in Bavaria. He is famous as a technologist, and has several times been a member of the juries at international exhibitions. His works in- clude Lehrbuch der Chemie (1850); Lehrbuch der chemischen Technologic (1850); Geschichte der Chemie (1854) ; HandbucTi der Technologic (5 vols., 1856-'63) ; and Die chemische Fabrik- industrie (1867). They have all passed through several editions, and some, including the "Hand- book of Technology," have been translated into English. He is editor of the Jahresberichte uber chemische Technologic (21st year, 1876). WAHABEES 419 WAGRAM, a village of Lower Austria, on the left bank of the Rossbach, 11 m. N. E. of Vi- enna, celebrated for a decisive victory of Na- poleon, July 5-6, 1809, over the Austrians, commanded by the archduke Charles. The loss was about 25,000 on each side. The im- mediate result of the battle was the retreat of the Austrians to the heights of Znaym. After a second engagement an armistice was con- cluded on July 12, followed by the peace of Vienna, negotiated at the palace of Schon- brunn, Oct. 14. Berthier, for his share in the victory, was created prince of Wagram. WAII. See PANDA. WAHABEES, or Wahnbites, an Arabian sect of Mohammedans, founded by Abd-el-Wahab in the middle of the 18th century in Nedjed, which, previous to the death of its founder in 1787, spread over a considerable portion of the Arabian peninsula. In 1805 only Hadramaut and Oman remained free from subjection to it, Mecca having been taken by the Wahabite armies in 1803, and Medina in 1804. The temporal power of the Wahabees was largely reduced by the Porte in 1818, when their sheikh Abdallah, the great-grandson of Saoud, the friend and protector of Abd-el-Wahab, was compelled to surrender to Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Mehemet Ali, and was taken to Con- stantinople and executed. The sect still exists, and is paramount in central Arabia, where, according to Palgrave, the dominions of the sultan of the Wahabees embrace not only Ned- jed proper, but the adjacent provinces, and in- clude 316 towns or villages, with a population of 1,219,000 in 1863. Wahab reduced Moham- medanism to a pure deism ; maintained that there had been no man directly inspired of God ; that Moses and Jesus were virtuous men, but inferior in the perfection of their character to Mohammed, who however had no claim to be worshipped, since he was not of the divine nature. There is, according to his instruc- tion, no revealed religion, no divine book ; the Koran is a good book indeed, but not a revelation from God; the Mohammedan re- ligion is entitled to be called a divine re- ligion, not as revealed by God to man, but because of its perfection. All reverence for the tomb or the birthplace of Mohanftned, or any other saint, was in his view idolatry, and the worship of the prophet's tomb was prohib- ited while the Wahabees held Medina. Mo- hammed preached for all nations, and not for the Arabs alone; his doctrines were ap- proved of God, and were to be propagated by the sword, and all who would not adopt them or who neglected compliance with them were to be severely punished or put to death. Traditions are not to be regarded as binding on the conscience. Good works are only the consequence of the rule that we should adore God as if he were present to our eyes ; and though we cannot see him, we must know that he sees us. The use of wine, opium, or tobacco was sternly prohibited, and the immoral prac-