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 VENEZUELA 293 the eastern to the banks of the Cojedes, are granitic, while the rocks of the littoral chain are inetamorphic ; but the surface rocks of Falcon and Zulia belong for the most part to the carboniferous era. Calcareous rock un- derlies the argillaceous surface stratum of the plains (llanos), which, stretching from the southern edge of the plateau of Caracas to Brazil, and from the head waters of the Vi- chada to British Guiana, were once probably the bed of a vast inland sea. Diamonds have been found in Nueva Esparta, and amethysts in Bolivar. Gold occurs in Bolivar, and espe- cially in Guayana, where some mines are still worked, and in the sands of many of the riv- ers discharging into the Caribbean sea ;' plati- num in Bolivar ; silver in Yaracui, Barquisi- meto, Barcelona, Merida, Trujillo, and Boli- var ; copper in large quantities in the littoral chain, and particularly in Bolivar, though the once productive mines have been abandoned ; and tin, zinc, lead, quicksilver, and antimony in various parts of the country. Iron is re- puted abundant in Bolivar, Falcon, Nueva Es- parta, and Barcelona ; but owing to lack of skill in the art of mining and the prevalence of civil wars, no mines have been worked. Alum, sulphate of magnesia, gypsum, and salt- petre abound ; there are several varieties of marble ; salt is extensively produced in vari- ous parts of the coast ; phosphate of lime is extracted from the largest island of the Roque archipelago ; and sulphur might easily be made available in extensive quantities in Barcelona, Falcon, and Merida. Asphaltum and petro- leum are said to be plentiful in the littoral states from Cumand to Zulia, and coal beds occur in Falcon. From the lagoon of Lagu- nilla in Merida are extracted considerable quan- tities of urao. Among the numerous thermal springs are those of Las Trincheras near Valen- cia, of Onoto, and of Mariara, the temperatures of which are 210, 112, and 149 F. respec- tively ; but the most remarkable are those of the Quiva, in the vicinity of Coro, where two large white semispheroids contain in some 40 cavities many-colored waters at temperatures varying from 40 to 152 F. Venezuela, in common with all the mountainous countries of Spanish America, presents three grand di- visions as to climate : the tierras cdlidas (hot lands), tierras templadas (temperate lands), and the tierras frias (cold lands). In the first region, extending to 2,000 ft. above the sea, the mean annual temperature for the whole republic is 80 F. ; but in many portions a much higher temperature prevails, as in La Guayra, where it ranges from 100 to 110 F. ; in Barcelona, whose capital Humboldt notes as one of the hottest and most insalubrious places on the globe ; and in Maracaybo, by far the hottest locality in the country. In the temperate region, mostly confined to the mesas or plateaus from 2,000 to 7,000 ft. above the sea, in the mountains designated as the second branch of the first system, and in the coast chain, the thermometer fluctuates between 65 and 75. The climate of this region, the most populous of Venezuela, is one of perpetual spring and remarkably salubrious. To the third or cold region belongs all above 7,000 -ft., including the bleak, chilly, and inhospitable paramos or highest table lands. A remarkable fact, hitherto unaccounted for, is the uninhab- itableness of the Venezuelan table lands above 8,000 ft., notwithstanding their proximity to the equator, while those of Mexico (some over 8,000 ft.), Quito, Bogota, Cuzco, and Oruro (the last over 13,000 ft.) are among the most de- lightful regions of the earth. There are here, as elsewhere in tropical America, but two sea- sons, the dry and the rainy. The former, called summer, usually lasts from November to April ; winter extends over the remaining months, save in Guayana, where, owing to the dense forests, the rains are more persistent than in the other states. The mean annual rainfall at Caracas is about 330 inches in 80 days. Yellow and intermittent fevers are com- mon throughout almost the whole of the coast region during winter, and elephantiasis and goitre are the great scourges of the plateaus. The prevailing winds on the coast during sum- mer, and especially in December and January, are those from the north and northeast. Earth- quakes are frequent, and often very disastrous, as that of February, 1610, which destroyed several towns in Tachira and Merida ; that of October, 1766, which laid Cumana in ruins ; and that of March 26, 1812, the most terrible of all, which completely ruined the city of Caracas, then numbering 50,000 inhabitants. The soil, except in the sandy regions of the coast and the lofty and arid paramos, is for the most part exceedingly fertile. The region below the level of 3,000 ft. is the country of the palms, here inferior only in variety to those of the Brazilian forests. Most noteworthy among them are the sago palm, which thrives in the low lands ; the chiquichique and the yagua, whose fibrous tufts are converted into cordage, while the yagua yields also an excel- lent oil ; the chatfuarama, furnishing material for thatch and laths ; and the giant royal palm, the wax palm, and several other species. The cocoa palm is, after the common fan palm, the most abundant, and cocoanut oil is exported in considerable quantities. Mention should likewise be made of the breadfruit tree and peach palm, esteemed for their farinaceous fruits. The woods of the central valleys and the immense forests of Guayana offer a great variety of timber and cabinet woods, including mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, black and white ebony, &c. The Ibejuco mavacure, from the juice of which the Indians prepare their famous arrow poison curare or woorara, is common in Guayana. The true cinchona forms whole forests at elevations varying from 2,700 to 4,500 ft. above the sea. The caucho or In- dia-rubber tree is abundant, as are also Brazil and other dye woods and plants, including the