Page:The American Cyclopædia (1879) Volume XVI.djvu/118

 106 ULTRAMARINE ULTRAMARINE, a beautiful blue pigment ori- ginally made from lapis lazuli (see LAPIS LA- ZULI), but now prepared in large quantities artificially. Its fabrication was suggested by the discovery of blue masses on taking down soda furnaces and lime kilns ; and the societe d 1 encouragement at Paris in 1824 offered a prize of 6,000 francs for its production, which was awarded to Guimet of Toulouse in 1828. A mode of preparation had previously been pub- lished by Christian Gmelin, in the beginning of the same year. Guimet's process was first ap- plied on the manufacturing scale, but was kept secret. Gmelin's process was long followed, but many others have finally come into use. The following process, given by Prof. Miller of London, answers well upon a small scale : An intimate mixture of 100 parts of finely washed kaolin, 100 of sodic carbonate, 60 of sulphur, and 12 of charcoal is exposed in a covered crucible to a bright red heat for three hours and a half. The residue, which should not be in a fused condition, is green. The product after grinding is well washed, dried, and mixed with one fifth of its weight of sul- phur, and exposed in a thin layer to a gentle heat a little above that required to burn off the sulphur, which being accomplished the process is repeated two or three times, until the mass becomes bright blue. The green modification, the product of the initial process, is also manu- factured for the market. There is some doubt as to the nature of the coloring matter of ultra- marine. According to the experiments of Wilkens, ultramarine is composed of two por- tions, one constant, containing the coloring matter and soluble in hydrochloric acid, while the other contains a variable amount of clay, ferric oxide, and sulphuric acid. ULTRAMONTANISTS (Lat. ultra monies, be- yond the mountains), the name formerly ap- plied to all theologians in the Roman Catholic church who advocated the highest spiritual and temporal power of the papacy, and bestowed since 1870 on all who accept the decrees of the Vatican council. The name originated with the French Gallicans, who denied to the popes all right to depose sovereigns or to inter- fere in the temporal affairs of states and of national churches, and maintained that the doctrinal judgments of the popes only become infallible and binding on the conscience when confirmed by the consent of the church, and that the authority of a general council is superior to that of the pope. The contrary view being held "beyond the Alps" and throughout Italy, its supporters were called Transalpini and ultramontani. At the coun- cil of Constance, where these adverse opinions came conspicuously into conflict, the designa- tion of ultramontane was extended to persons of every nationality who denied the superiority of the council over the pope. After that coun- cil the question of the direct or indirect power of the papacy over states and sovereigns be- came the chief point of dispute, and the ques- ULYSSES tion everywhere assumed a national character. In Germany Febronius (Bishop Hontheim) wrote a powerful work against ultramontan- ism; and in 1786, at the convention of Ems, the 'archbishops of Mentz, Treves, Cologne, and Salzburg denounced it. In Italy its chief opponent in the last century was Scipione Ricci, bishop of Pistoja, who convened a synod in that city in September, 1786, and promul- gated disciplinary decrees and a doctrinal ex- position favoring extreme Gallicanism and Jan- senism. These were partly confirmed, April 23, 1787, by an assembly of the bishops of Tuscany ; bnt the grand duke, who had been the chief promoter of these measures, having become emperor as Leopold II. in 1790, al- lowed his successor to restrain and punish Ricci and his followers. The acts of the synod of Pistoja were condemned by Pius VI. in the dogmatic bull Auctoremfidei of Aug. 28, 1794. The political aspects of ultramontanism were once more brought into prominent notice in 1869-'70 in connection with the council of the Vatican and the doctrine of papal infallibility. Since then the tendencies of ultramontanism in its bearings on civil allegiance have been vehemently discussed, especially in Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and England. ULYSSES, or Odyssens (Gr. 'Odwnrei-f), one of the Greek leaders at the siege of Troy. Ac- cording to the Homeric account, he was the son of Laertes and Anticlea, and married Penel- ope, the daughter of Icarius, by whom he had a son named Telemachus. He ruled in Itha- ca, and only with great difficulty could be in- duced to join the expedition against Troy. According to one form of the legend, he simu- lated insanity to avoid taking part, and ploughed the sand on the beach ; Palamedes exposed the deception by placing his infant son Telemachus in the furrow, at which Ulysses turned the plough aside. The falsity of his madness being thus disclosed, he joined the Grecian fleet at Aulis with 12 ships, and when the expedition had reached Tenedos was sent with Menelaus to Troy to demand Helen and the stolen prop- erty. The mission was unsuccessful. In the ten years' war he was distinguished for his prowess as a warrior, but far more for his elo- quence, sagacity, and inexhaustible resources under difficulties. After the death of Achilles his armor was offered as a prize to the greatest warrior in the Greek army, and Ulysses and Ajax became rivals for the honor, the former proving successful. By his contrivance the Palladium was carried away from Troy by stealth, and he was one of the heroes con- cealed in the wooden horse which the Trojans to their ruin introduced into the city. His ten .years' wanderings after the close of the siege form the subject of the Odyssey. After various adventures he was thrown upon the coasts of the Lotophagi, where his compan- ions, having eaten of the lotus, wished to re- main. But he induced them to depart, sailed to the island of the Cyclops, and with 12 of