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 TRADES UNION employers only for the purpose of exciting uig tho men a spirit of rivalry, which in ir opinion would result in a reduction oJ wages or an increase in tho hours of labor. In tho mining trade, when the output of coal has been in excess of the demand, they have some- times insisted on diminishing production, in order that the price might not fall so low as to entail a reduction of wages. Some unions have endeavored to fix a limit to the amountof work which each man might do. One of the bes! results of free association among the workmen of the United Kingdom is the mental culture wliieh it has promoted. The members of trades unions generally believe that wages have been considerably raised through their agency, and Uiey usually assume that this advantage to the workmen has been gained by cutting down the profits of the employers. Some employers deny that the unions have affected wages at all, while others complain that they have af- fected them to an injurious degree. Among political economists, some strenuously maintain that wages can only be determined by the law of supply and demand ; others admit that com- bination may have raised the rate of wages in particular trades, but contend that it has there- by raised tho price of the products of those trades in tho same proportion, and thus in- creased tho cost of living to all classes, inclu- (lii).u' large masses of workmen, who, without ren-iving any increase in their own wages, are compelled as purchasers of commodities to <M MI tribute to the increase received by their more fortunate fellows. On tho other hand, Mr. W. T. Thornton, in his well known work on labor published in 1869, argues that the efforts of the trades unions have raised tho wages of laborers in general, and estimates tho addition thus made to the aggregate earn- ings of tho working men of tho United King- dom at ,9,000,000 per annum. A trades union congress, composed of delegates from different unions and local federations, has been held an- nually since 18G9. Thus far these congresses have confined their attention to objects which had ;i direct relation to the interests of the working classes, such as providing for the proper ventilation of mines, and reducing the hours of labor for women and children. To- ward (he adoption of such measures they have materially contributed, and the passage of the labor laws of 1875 is mainly attributable to the exertions of their committee. A federa- tion for defensive purposes, called the United Kingdom alliance of organized trades, has ex- isted for several years, but does not embrace any of the larger unions. There is also a work- man's international league (distinct from the revolutionary international workingmen's as- sociation), having for its object concert of ac- tion between English and foreign workmen in Certain trades wherein the keenness of inter- national competition tends to depress wages. A national federation of associated employ- ers of labor was formed in August, 1873. The 835 scope of its operations was limited to parlia- mentary legislation, the collection and distri- bution of information upon industrial ques- tions, and the endeavor to secure unity of action among employers. The masters in the princi- pal trades have long had associations for tho specific purpose of resisting those of the men In case of a strike against one of their mem- bers, they assist him in obtaining other work- men, supply him with funds or credit, under- take or guarantee his contracts, and in other ways help him to dispense with his workmen until they accept his terms. A "lockout" is a retaliatory measure on the part of employers, to deprive workmen on strike of assistance from others by throwing tho latter out of em- ployment. Tho occurrence of strikes and lock- outs has often been attended with riotous de- monstrations and destruction of life and prop- erty. The principal strikes since the repeal of the combination laws were as follows: TRADES. Du. No. of peraoni Idle. Duration Ofltrik.. Manchester cotton spinners Ashton and Staleybridgo cotton Bplnners 1829 1S80 10,000 80 000 6 months. Liverpool building trades Preston cotton spinners Amalgamated engineers Preston cotton spinners 1888 l-o; 1651 1864 ' V, 000 8,000 17 000 6 months. 18 weeks. 8 months. 86 weeks London building trades. . 1K>9 7856 General lockout in the iron trade. Clyde ship-building trade North of England iron trade. . . Colliers of South Wales 18C5 18C6 I860 1-71 200,000 18,000 12,000 10,000 16 weeks. I M'MTJll 1 months. 5 months. 12 weeks. At the end of 1875 a strike occurred at the Erith iron works, which threatened to become general, the workmen resisting and the em- ployers insisting upon piece work. Members of the amalgamated society of engineers who were engaged in the unsuccessful strike of 1851 emigrated the same year to Australia, and established a branch at Sydney. Trades unions have since become general in Aus- tralia, and have enabled workmen not only to make their own terms with employers, but to exert a powerful influence upon legislation, especially in defeating appropriations to pro- mote immigration of laborers. They have a trades and labor council comprising 23 societies and 3,000 members, with a permanent com- mittee on parliamentary representation. In this colony eight hours as a rule constitute a working day, and wages vary from Is. to 2. 24 to 48 cts. gold) an hour. Trades unions also exist to some extent in New Zealand and other British colonies. There is an associa- composed of delegates from the local trades mions, the object of which is to influence egislation in the interest of the working class. There are no trades unions in Canada of na- ional (or rather of colonial) extent, except hose which are connected with organizations n the United States. Trades unions after the
 * ion known as the "Canada Labor Union,"