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 TORTURE bringing about its discontinuance. In the Jnited States torture has never been reckoned adjunct of judicial examination, though lere are traces of the belief in its necessity nong the lower classes in some of the early >lonial enactments. Among the Romans, the lourge was the usual instrument of torture ; 16 equuleus, a sort of upright rack, was an in- jntion of the Romans used upon their slaves, which pincers to tear the flesh, fire, &c., rere added. The rack as used in the tower of mdon was of uncertain origin ; it consisted an open frame of oak under which the pris- ler was laid on his back, and his wrists and ikies fastened by ropes to rollers at the end the frame, which were tightened by means a ratchet wheel till the whole body was )ught to a level with the top of the rollers, id in the "question extraordinary" till the )ints were dislocated. The "boot "was the ivorite French instrument of torture ; in this igs of iron were passed around the legs, and rooden wedges driven between them and the till the muscles were reduced to jelly, long other instruments used to test the pow- of human endurance were the thumbscrew ; >n gauntlets ; the " little ease," a narrow cell which the prisoner was confined for several ays, and in which the only position possible ras one which soon cramped every muscle; "scavenger's daughter" (a corruption of ented by Sir William Skevington, which BO impressed the body as to start the blood from le nostrils, and often also from the hands and ?et; the torture by water; and numerous ther inventions capable of producing intense ering. For those forms of punishment which aimed at making the penalties of crime terrible by the intensity of the physical suffer- they inflicted, ingenuity seemingly exhaust- its powers. Crucifixion, fastening to the with cords, and anointing the body with >ney that insects might torment the helpless jtim, hanging up in a cage, suspending the Iprit by the arms while weights were tied to le feet, the fastening of limbs to trees which rere forced into proximity to each other and ' 3n suffered to fly apart, pouring melted lead the ears, immersing one or more limbs or whole body in boiling oil, suspending over slow fire, plucking out the hair in masses, ing the nostrils and lips, putting out the i, cropping, cutting off the hands, brand- , mutilation, crushing the body with heavy reights, starvation, deprivation of air, confine- lent in oubliettes or bottle-like prisons with- out ventilation, pulling out the nails, and break- ing on the wheel, are a few of the many means by which punishment has been inflicted, often for offences of a secondary grade, within the past 200 years. To the same writers who ef- fected the discontinuance of torture, is due in a great degree also the abolition of these cruel mnishments. See Jardine, " On the Use of Torture in the Criminal Law of England " (8vo, 792 VOL. xv. 52 TOTAL ABSTINENCE 815 London, 1839); Maclaurin, "Introduction to Criminal Trials ;" Augustin Nicolas, Si la tor- ture est un moyen sur d verifier let crimes secrets (12mo, 1681) ; Reitemaier, Sur la ques- tion chez let Grecs et lea Romains ; and Mitter- maier, Das Deutsche StrafcerfaJiren. vol. i. TORT. See WHIG AND TOBY. TOSCHI, Paolo, an Italian engraver, born in Parma about 1788, died there in 1864. He studied in Paris, returning in 1819 to Parma as director of the academy of fine arts. He was the first to engrave Correggio's frescoes, of which he completed 22 plates with the aid of his pupils, who continued the work after his death; the whole number is to be 48, and 18 additional had been finished in 1874. TOTAL ABSTINENCE. As early as 1689 a law was made in Massachusetts to restrain intem- perate drinking, and similar laws were passed about the same time in Connecticut. In 1760 the religious societies began to protest against the use of liquors at funerals. In 1756 a duty was laid upon imported spirits in Pennsylvania for the purpose of diminishing their consump- tion, and in 1772 this act was extended to em- brace spirits of domestic production. The first continental congress, in 1774, recommended " the several legislatures of the United States immediately to pass laws the most effectual for putting an immediate stop to the pernicious practice of distilling, by which the most exten- sive evils are likely to be derived if not quick- ly prevented." The first modern temperance society was formed in 1789 by 200 farmers of Litchfield, Conn., who, to discourage the use of spirituous liquors, "determined not to use any distilled liquors in doing their farm work the ensuing season." In December, 1790, the college of physicians in Philadelphia memorial- ized congress "to impose such heavy duties upon distilled spirits as shall be effectual to restrain their intemperate use in our country." The Methodist church from its foundation in America took decided ground against the use and sale of liquors. In the latter part of the 18th century the clergy in general began to make active efforts against intemperance. The cause of temperance was also publicly advo- cated by philanthropists, chief among whom was Dr. Benjamin Rush. But the modern temperance movement may be said to date from 1811, when the efforts for the suppres- sion of intemperance assumed an organized and systematic form, although for 25 years thereafter but limited results were apparent. In that year the general assembly of the Pres- byterian church appointed a committee of seven ministers to devise measures for pre- venting the evils arising from the intemperate use of spirituous liquors. In 1812 this com- mittee recommended that all Presbyterian min- isters in the United States should deliver dis- courses on the evils of intemperance, and that extended efforts should be made to circulate addresses, sermons, tracts, and other printed matter on this subject. In June, 1811, the
 * Skevington's daughter "), an instrument in-