Page:The American Cyclopædia (1879) Volume XV.djvu/725

 THEOLOGY to the development of the religious ideas rest- ing on rational arguments only, and positive or revealed theology, which sets forth and sys- tematizes the doctrines of the Scriptures and of the church. Revealed theology or Biblical theology is occupied solely with the investiga- tion and representation of the doctrines con- tained in the Bible. A distinction is made between theoretical theology or dogmatics and practical theology or ethics. Theology, viewed as the whole of religious science, is commonly regarded as consisting of four main branches, historical, exegetical, systematic, and practical or moral theology. These are again variously subdivided, and several auxiliary sciences are connected with them. Thus historical theology embraces the history of the church, of Chris- tian doctrines, of heresies, of councils, &c. To exegetical theology belong the interpretation (exegesis) of the Bible ; hermeneutics, the sci- ence which teaches the right principles to be observed in interpreting the Bible; criticism, which investigates and tries to establish the genuine original text ; the introduction to the Bible, which discusses the time when and place where each book of the Bible originated, its authenticity, and kindred questions. Systey matic theology, also called merely theolog/, comprises the system of Christian doctrines (dogmatics) ; the system of Christian etwcs ; symbolics, the comparative statement ofj the doctrines of the several religious denomina- tions, &c. Practical theology includes h6milet- ics, catechetics, liturgies, ecclesiastical law, &c. Polemics and apologetics, which are also often treated as separate branches of theology, belong to several of the above four principal divisions at the same time. Until the time of Abelard little attention was paid to comprehending theology in its totality, and to establishing the connection of the branches with each other. Although nearly all the theologians of the mid- dle ages whose writings are extant belonged to the same church, yet they were divided into two fundamentally different achools, the scho- lastics and mystics. The theologians of the churches which grew out of the reformation of the 16th century followed, in their treat- ment of theology, either the scholastics or mys- tics, though the name of/ the former was dis- carded both by their Protestant and Roman Catholic followers. A ^ew era in the history of theology was inaugurated by the philosophy of Kant, who fully developed and systematized a new theory of Christian theology, commonly called rationalism, wh/ich more or less made the belief in a religiou/s doctrine dependent on its demonstrability by "reason. This view gained the ascendancy in several Protestant churches. Its opponents, who defended the Bible as the absolute rule of faith, were called supranatu- ralists, and the subsequent history of theology is a contest not yet ended between these two systems. The chief su-ena of this controversy has been Germany ; tyut it has had little or no influence over" Roman!. Catholic schools. It has THEOPHRASTUS 695 also been attempted to build up theological systems in opposition to Christianity, such as deism and pantheism. In Roman Catholic schools, theology is divided into dogmatic and moral. Dogmatic theology, considered in its various methods of exposition and demonstra- tion, is termed positive theology when it bases its proofs on Scripture and tradition. Moral theology treats of divine and human law as the rule of our actions. It aims at determining the true sense of the decalogue and the gospel precepts, discusses virtues and vices, examines the principles of justice and the foundations of injustice, points out what is needful and unlawful, and teaches all Christians their re- spective obligations in all states, conditions, and offices. Moral theologians are often called casuists, from their treating exprofesso of " cases of conscience." Scholastic theology is that peculiar method introduced into the schools during the llth and 12th centuries. It reduced all doctrinal matters into one body, so coor- dinating them that one question explained and completed another, binding them into a con- nected and systematic whole ; it observed in its every demonstration the strict process of syllogistic reasoning, making use of the admit- ted principles of metaphysics, and thus con- ciliating faith with reason, and religion with philosophy. Valuable systematic works, giv- ing a survey of the entire field of Christian theology, have been published by President Dwight, Dr. J. Pye Smith, Prof. Hodge (" Sys- tematic Theology," 3 vols. 8vo, New York, 1872-'3), and others, and useful encyclopaedic manuals by Hagenbach, Pelt, and Staudenmaier. THEOPHRASTUS, a Greek philosopher, born at Eresus, in the island of Lesbos, about 372 B. 0., died about 287. His original name was f yrtamus, and he was surnamed Theophras- tus probably for his eloquence. He studied at Athens under Plato and Aristotle, and suc- ceeded the latter at the lyceum. The num- ber of his pupils from all parts of Greece was at one time 2,000. His influence on public affairs excited a party spirit against him, and being brought before the Areopagus on a charge of impiety, he pleaded his own cause, and was acquitted. After this he taught in tranquillity till 305, when Sophocles, son of Amphiclides, carried a law which prohibited all philosophers, under pain of death, from giving any public instruction without the permission of the state. Theophrastus left Athens; but in the next year the law was abolished, and he returned. He wrote works on politics, laws, legislators, and oratory, which are lost, and " A Disserta- tion on the Senses and the Imagination," a work on "Metaphysics," "Characters," and two works on botany, " The History of Plants " and " The Causes of Plants," which are extant in whole or in part. The book of " Charac- ters" consists of 30 sketches of the general vices of humanity as developed in individuals. His extant works were first printed with those of Aristotle (Venice, H95-'8) ; the best edition