Page:The American Cyclopædia (1879) Volume XV.djvu/338

 020 STAUNTON STAUOTON, Howard, an English author, born in 1810, died in London, June 26, 1874. He was educated at Oxford, but left without taking a degree, and went to London. In 1843 he won a match in Paris over St. Araand, the chess champion, and subsequently conducted the chess column in the " Illustrated London News," and published "The Chess Player's Hand Book " (London, 1847 ; with supplement, " Chess Praxis," 1860) ; " Chess Player's Com- panion" and "Chess Player's Text Book" (1849); and "Chess Tournament" (1852). From 1857 to 1860 he was engaged in editing an edition of Shakespeare ; in 1864 he brought out a facsimile of the folio of 1G23, and pub- lished "Memorials of Shakespeare;" and in 1872 he contributed to the "Atheneeum" a series of papers on the " Unsuspected Corrup- tions of Shakespeare's Text." He also wrote " Great Schools of England " (8vo, 1865). STAUPITZ, Joliami von, a German theologian, born in Meissen, died in Salzburg, Dec. 28, 1524. He was an Augustinian monk, obtained from the pope in 1501 general privileges for the newly established university at Wittenberg, of which he was made dean on its opening in 1502, and in 1508 caused Luther to become a professor there. He approved of the theses of Luther against papal indulgences, but not pub- licly. In 1518 he demanded at Augsburg that Luther should not be condemned unheard and untried. He became court preacher at Salz- burg, and in 1522 abbot of a Benedictine con- vent. He is the author of De Amore Dei (Leipsic, 1518), and several other writings of a mystical character. STAVANGER, a town of Norway, capital of a district of the same name, in the province of Christiansand, on the Bukkefiord, 100 m. S. of Bergen; pop. in 1870, 17,058. It has three suburbs, a cathedral dating from the llth cen- tury, a good harbor, about 500 registered ves- sels, and extensive fisheries. The population in 1801 was barely 2,500. STAVROPOL. I. A government of Russia, in Ciscaucasia, bounded N. by the country of the Don Cossacks and Astrakhan, E. and S". by the Terek territory, and W. by the Kuban territo- ry ; area, 26,634 sq. m. ; pop. in 1871, 437,118, embracing Russians, Cossacks, Nogai Tartars, Calmucks, Turkomans, Armenians, and others. The government is mostly level and unproduc- tive, contains a number of shallow lakes and swamps, and is watered by the Kuma, Kalauz, and other rivers. IL A town, capital of the government, on the Atchla, 185 m. 8. E. of Azov; pop. in 1871, 20,927. It is strongly fortified, has several churches and schools, a fine bazaar, manufactories of soap and leather, and an increasing trade with the Asiatic prov- inces of the empire. The neighboring warm sulphur springs are much frequented. STEAM, the vapor of water. Water, and even ice, at all temperatures, when not con- fined within impermeable walls, continually give off vapor, the surface particles assuming STEAM the gaseous state with a rapidity determined by the temperature of the mass and the nature and density of the superincumbent atmosphere. When confined, this gasification goes on with- out regard to the character or density of the atmosphere present until the vapor produced, by gradual accumulation, acquires the maximum density and pressure attainable at that tem- perature ; then the formation of vapor ceases. The minimum temperature at which the sub- stance can exist as vapor under a given pres- sure, and the maximum at which the water can retain its liquid form under that pressure, are the same. This temperature is called the tem- perature of saturation under the given pres- sure. When the process just described is car- ried on in a vessel open to the atmosphere, the issuing vapor mingles with the molecules of that atmosphere as rapidly as formed, and separates only at the surface, until the boiling point is reached, at which temperature the pressure of the vapor becomes equal to that of the atmosphere ; the formation of vapor (heat being supplied in sufficient quantity) be- comes rapid, and takes place within the mass as well as at the surface ; ebullition or boiling begins, the atmosphere is forced aside, and the ascending steam passes off en masse. (See BOILING POINT.) The temperature of the boil- ing point varies with the tension of the atmos- phere. Its mean temperature in open air at the sea level is 212 F., 100 on the centigrade scale, 80 on the Reaumur scale, and 673-2 on the absolute scale. The temperature of both water and steam in a steam boiler is the boil- ing point due to the pressure of steam carried. A table of such temperatures and pressures is given below. Superheated steam is that which has a temperature higher than that of satura- tion at the same pressure. If equal quantities of heat be supplied in equal times, an interval will elapse after the temperature has risen to the boiling point before the water will have become vaporized, which interval will be about 5J- times that required to heat the liquid from the freezing to the boiling point. Careful ex- periment has shown that, in the transition from the liquid to the gaseous condition, 5^ times as much heat is required as to heat the same weight of water from 32 to 212. The exact ratio is as 180*5 to 966'1 ; it being necessary to supply ISO'S units of heat to each pound of water to raise it in temperature from the freez- ing to the boiling point, and 966-1 British ther- mal units to change it into steam. As no rise of temperature was perceived during this last change of state, this heat was called by Dr. Black latent heat, which name is still retained, although it is now well known that it is this heat which performs the work of vaporization. The quantity of heat required to change water at the boiling point to steam at the same tem- perature varies with the pressure. Under at- mospheric pressure, Dr. Black and Jcimes Watt found its amount approximately, and Regnault, who discovered its variation with change of