Page:The American Cyclopædia (1879) Volume XIV.djvu/97

 PUNJAUB 89 (" " or ' '), placed at the beginning and end of extracted passages, of the speeches in dia- logue, &c. ; brackets or crotchets [ ], generally enclosing an explanatory phrase or passage in- serted by one writer in a quotation from an- other ; and references (consisting of the char- acters *, t, J,, 1, and IT, called respectively asterisk or star, dagger, double dagger, section, parallel, and paragraph, or of figures or letters smaller than those of the text), pointing to notes correspondingly marked at the foot or margin of the page. The ancients were in the habit of writing without distinction of either sentences or words until about 364 B. C. Af- terward it became usual to place a mark of distinction at the end of every word, as in the following inscription found near Bath, England : IVLIVSv VITALISv FABRI, &c. Sometimes, as in the subjoined extract from an inscription given by Montfaucon, a letter laid horizontally was used as an interstitial mark : P. FERRARIVS HERMES CAECINIAE H DIGNAE CONIVGI H KARISSIMAE NVMERIAE H But there is reason to believe that sorie sys- tem of punctuation was known to the Greeks in the time of Aristotle. It probably consisted of a single mark, which changed its significa- tion according to a change of position. At the bottom of a letter (A.) it was equivalent to a comma ; in the middle (A-), to a colon ; and at the top (A'), to a period ; but this plan could only be followed as long as Greek manuscripts were written entirely in capitals. St. Jerome in his translation of the Scriptures used certain marks of distinction or division, which he called commata and cola; but it has been thought that they consisted simply in writing every clause on a separate line. The modern points came into use very gradually after the invention of printing, the comma, parenthesis, note of interrogation, and period being the earliest in- troduced, and the note of exclamation the last. The first printed books have only arbitrary marks here and there, and it was not until the 16th century that an approach was made to a regular system by the Manutii of Venice. POJJAIJB, or I'anjab (Pers., the country of the five rivers), a province in the N. W'. portion of British India, between lat. 27 40' and 35 5' N., and Ion. 69 30' and 78 30' E., and bounded N. by Kafiristan and Cashmere, .E. by the Himalaya range and Northwest Prov- inces, S. by Rajpootana and Bhawalpoor, S. W. by Sinde, and W. by Beloochistan and Afghan- istan. According to the official statement of the progress and condition of India submitted to the British parliament in June, 1874, the area of the Punjaub is 103,748 sq. m., evident- ly including the Bannu district, which was omitted in the statement of the previous year. (See INDIA.) According to the last census, taken in January, 1868, the population was more than 17,500,000, but is supposed now to have increased to 19,000,000. There are ten civil divisions, each under a commissioner, and subdivided into districts as follows : 1. Am- bala or Umballa Ambala, Loodiana, Simla. 2. Amritsir Amritsir, Gurdaspoor, Sealkote. 3. Delhi Delhi, Goorgaon, Kurnal. 4. Dera- jat Bunnoo or Bannu, Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan. 5. Hissar Hissar, Rohtuk, Sirsa. 6. Jalandhar Hoshiarpoor, Jalandhar, Kangra. 7. Lahore Ferozepoor, Gujranwala, Lahore. 8. Mooltan Jhang, Montgomery, Mooltan, Mozuffergurh. 9. Peshawer Huzara (Abbottabad), Kohat, Peshawer. 10. Rawul- pindi Gujrat, Jhylum, Rawulpindi, Shahpoor. Under the supervision of the Punjaub govern- ment are 32 native Himalayan hill states, of which Cashmere is by far the most important. (See CASHMERE.) Of these, five in addition to Cashmere are beyond the river Sutlej ; among them Chumba, area 3,216 sq. m., pop. 110,- 000, paying an annual tribute of 500 ; Mandi, area 1,080 sq. m., pop. 135,000, annual tribute 10,000 ; and Sukhet, area 420 sq. m., pop. 45,000, annual tribute 1,100. The remaining 26 hill states lie S. of the Sutlej, and are geo- graphically arranged into four groups, known as the northern, east central, west central, and southern groups. Each of these states is very small, the most important being Nahun or Sir- mor, in the southern group, whose sovereign has 90,000 subjects. The affairs of the native state of Bhawalpoor are managed by a British political agent, whose administration is super- vised by the lieutenant governor of the Pun- jaub. The territory of the Punjaub is exceed- ingly irregular in outline, but consists mainly of the extensive plain which slopes S. W. from the highlands of Cashmere. This plain is drained by the Indus, and its five great trib- utaries, from which the country derives its name, though some geographers improperly re- gard it as derived from the Indus and its four larger tributaries, excluding the Beas. The Indus is the westernmost river; the tributaries, from W. to E., are the Jhylum, the Chenaub, the Eavee, the Sutlej, and the affluent of the latter, the Beas, all flowing into the Indus near Mittun Kote, lat. 28 58' N., Ion. 70 23' E., through the Punjnud, a broad stream in which their waters unite about 50 m. N. E. of this point of confluence. The Punjnud is formed by the union of the Chenaub from the north, bearing the accumulated waters of the Jhylum and the Ravee, with the Ghara, or united Sut- lej and Beas, from the east. These streams are all described under their own names. The only portion of the Punjaub not included in the Indus basin is the region about Delhi bor- dering the Northwest Provinces, which lie within the valley of the Ganges. The moun- tains of the Punjaub are confined to the N. E. and N. W. corners of the province. In the former region is the Himalayan district of Kangra, comprising Lahool, Spiti, and Kulo ; and in the latter the Salt range, about 2,000 ft. high, trends westward from the Jhylum