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 RUSSIA (LANGUAGE AND LITERATUBE) 497 guage, the monopoly of printing Russian books for 15 years. The first newspaper was es- tablished in Moscow in 1704, and the first in St. Petersburg in 1705. Peter instituted the imperial academy of science according to a plan of Leibnitz ; it was opened shortly after his death, by Catharine I. (1725). The impetuosity with which Peter endeavored to give to his empire a literature did not leave him time to establish it on a native basis, and to develop the national resources ; the writers whom he urged on to write naturally brought many foreign and heterogeneous elements into the rising literature. An Italian theatre was opened at the Russian court in 1730, and a German one in 1738. Among the principal authors of this time were Demetrius, metro- politan of Rostov (1651-1709), who wrote bi- ographies of the saints (4 vols., Kiev, 1711- '16); Theophan Procopovitch (1681-1736), metropolitan of Novgorod, who left about 60 theological and historical works; Basil Niki- titch Tatishtcheff (1686-1750), who wrote a history of Russia in 4 vols. ; Prince Cantemir, a satirical poet; the two Cossack poets Kli- movski and Daniloff ; the historian Prince Khilkoff (died 1718), who wrote a " Summary of Russian History ;" Ivan Kyriloff, a statis- tician and geographer ; and Basil Grigorovitch, who described a journey to western Europe. Trediakovski improved Russian prosody, but his poems exhibit more learning than poetical genius. The work begun by Peter the Great was carried on with great vigor and success by the empresses Elizabeth and Catharine II. Elizabeth, who regarded art and science as the brightest ornaments of her court, founded the university of Moscow, and the academy of arts in St. Petersburg. Catharine II. added new and immense fields to the literary production of the country, by establishing public schools throughout the empire. She also established normal schools, liberally supporting the pupils, enlarged and patronized the academy of sciences and the academy of arts, and established in 1783 the academy for the perfection of the Russian language and history. At the head of the authors of this period stands Lomonosoff (died 1765), the father of the modern Russian language. He wrote the first critical Russian grammar, was the first to write pure and gen- uine Russian prose, and is still valued as a lyric poet. The first dramatic writer of note was Sumarokoff (died 1777), who with almost equal success wrote also historical and other poetical works. For the exhibition of his dramas national theatres were established at St. Petersburg (1756) and Moscow (1759). Among the other distinguished poets of this time were Kheraskoff (1733-1807), one of the most prolific writers of Russia, and Bogdano- vitch, whose romantic poem Dushenka has be- come one of the favorites of the nation. Der- zhavin (1743-1816) exhibited a greater ori- ginality than any of the preceding poets. His lyric, didactic, and dramatic works still hold a high rank, and his " Ode to God " has been translated into nearly all civilized langua- ges. Von-Vizin (died 1792) was particularly successful as a writer of comedies, some of which, as his Nedorosl, are still performed at the national theatres; he was also the best prose writer of this period. Kapnist as a lyr- ic poet equalled Derzhavin in tenderness and purity of language, and was his superior in po- etical genius. In dramatic poetry Kniazhnin (died 1791) is almost the peer of Sumarokoff. Count Khvostoff deserves honorable mention for his comedies, and Prince Dolgoruki (1764-^, 1823) for his philosophical odes and epistles. Platon, metropolitan of Moscow, wrote numer- ous works on ecclesiastical history. A " His- tory of Russia " was written by Shtcherbatoff (1733-'90); Boltin (1735-'92) wrote critical essays on the ancient history of Russia; Tchul- koff, a "History of Russian Commerce;" Go- likoff, " Collections for a Biography of Peter the Great;" and Pleshtcheyeff, "Statistics of Russia." Muravieff (1757-1807) wrote many pedagogical, moral, and historical essays, all of which exhibit depth and nobility of feeling, keenness of thought, and an accomplished style. Novikoff (1744-1818) founded a typographi- cal society, and established a satirical journal which had considerable influence in literary circles. The critical study of the language was greatly promoted by a " Comparative Diction- ary of the Russian Language" (St. Petersburg, 1787-'9), for which Catharine II. herself drew up the plans. The history of Russian literature in the 19th century exhibits steady progress. Alexander I. was- a liberal patron of literature ; he increased the number of universities and es- tablished many new literary institutions. Un- der Nicholas I. Russian literature emancipated itself fully from the controlling influence of foreign elements, assumed a thoroughly nation- al character, and received new inspiration from the rise of the Panslavic movements, both po- litical and literary, in which Russia, as the foremost representative of the race, seemed to be required to play a prominent part. The new period beginning with the 19th century was opened in a worthy manner by Nicholas Karamsin (1765-1826), who delivered Russian prose from the dominion of bombast, and set a brilliant example of a plain, flowing, and sprightly language, especially in his chief work, a "History of Russia," in 12 vols. He seems to have taken Wieland as a model. Many of his followers even outdid him in imitating the German classics, and there was danger of Rus- sian literature becoming Germanized, when a reaction arose through Shishkoff (1754-1841), minister of public instruction, and a distin- guished poet, philologist, and translator. The old Russian and purely national tendencies found a centre in the "school of Moscow." The victory of that school is in great part due to the genius of Pushkin (1799-1837), whose poems afford a faithful and patriotic reflection of Russian life, which forms the subject of