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 492 RUSSIA duke of Holstein, who immediately on his ac- cession gave up the alliance with Austria, and concluded, first a peace, and soon after an offen- sive alliance with Frederick the Great. After a reign of only a few months, Peter lost the crown and his life by a court revolution, at the head of which was his own wife, a daughter of the duke of Anhalt-Zerbst, who now ascended the throne as Catharine II. (17G2-'96). During her reign Russia gained a leading and decisive influence in the system of European policy, and was generally recognized as one of the great powers of Europe. Catharine fully com- prehended the necessity of external peace for the development of the internal resources of the empire, and soon after her accession re- called the Russian troops who were taking part in the seven years' war. She surrounded her throne with a host of statesmen and warriors, more famous for ability than character, such as Gallitzin, Rumiantzeff, Panin, Orloff, Solti- koff, Suvaroff, Tchernitchev, Repnin, and Po- temkin. She took a prominent part in the nefarious dismemberments of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795, and received herself the lion's share, consisting of nearly two thirds of the Polish kingdom ; and in a number of success- ful wars she wrested from the Turks the Cri- mea, Azov, and several other territories. Al- together the territory of Russia was enlarged during her reign by nearly 225,000 sq. m., Corn-land being among the acquisitions. The internal progress was no less signal. More than 50,000 industrious foreigners settled in the fine agricultural districts of southern Rus- sia as colonists, and a largo number of new educational and charitable institutions were established. Commerce, navigation, and in- dustry greatly improved under Catharine ; the administration of the empire waa thoroughly reorganized, and in 1706 the empress even convoked a general assembly of delegates from the provinces to consult respecting the compi- lation of a new code of laws. Iler son, Paul I. (1796-1801), took an active part in the European war kindled by the French revolu- tion, forming a defensive and offensive alli- ance against France, with England, Austria, Naples, and the Porte. His armies were sent in 1799 against the French republic to Italy, Switzerland, and Holland, and his chief com- mander, Suvaroff, not only increased the fame of the Russian arms, but greatly strengthen- ed the Russian influence on European policy. Dissatisfied with his allies, Paul soon recalled the army, concluded with Denmark and Swe- den a convention of armed neutrality, and even made friendly advances toward France, when a conspiracy of Russian nobles, who had suffered much from his despotic caprices, led to his assassination. His son, Alexander I. (1801-'25), was strongly inclined in favor of a peaceful policy, though ho found it impossible to keep out of the general war. In 1801-'2 he was active in promoting the treaties which led to the gradual dissolution of the German empire. About this time he incorporated with Russia all the provinces of Georgia. The faith- lessness of Napoleon toward Naples and Han- over, and the execution of the duke d'En- ghien (who was carried off from Baden), in- duced Alexander to enter into an anti-French alliance with Austria, England, Sweden, and Naples. A grand army under Kutuzoff march- ed into Moravia, united with the Austrians, and with them was routed at Austerlitz, where Alexander was himself present, Dec. 2, 1805. Not more fortunate was the alliance of Alex- ander with Prussia. After the indecisive bat- tle of Eylau, Feb. 7, 8, 1807, the Russians were totally defeated in the bloody battle of Fried- land (June 14), and Alexander was forced to conclude the peace of Tilsit (July 7), by a secret article of which he surrendered the Io- nian islands to France, while he received from Prussia the district of Bialystok, with 184,000 inhabitants. Moreover, Russia had to give its adhesion to the continental system, and to close its ports to British vessels. A war with the Turks, which had been instigated by Na- poleon, terminated in favor of the Russians, who occupied Moldavia and "Wallachia. The peace of Tilsit raised two new enemies against Russia: England, which desired to take re- venge for the adhesion of Russia to the con- tinental system, and inflicted great damage on Russian commerce; and Gustavus IV. of Swe- den, who in a brief and unfortunate war lost the crown for himself and for his race, while Sweden, in the treaty at Frederikshamn, Sept. 17, 1809, ceded Finland, the Aland islands, and a portion of Bothnia, a territory with 900,000 inhabitants. For five years Alexander remain- ed on good terms with Napoleon, and in the treaty between France and Austria at SchOn- brunn (Oct. 14, 1809) Russia received from Austria the district of Tarnopol in Galicia, with 400,000 inhabitants. Turkey, in the peace at Bucharest in 1812, was obliged to cede Bessarabia and a part of Moldavia; and Persia, in the peace at Gulistan in 1813, to surrender Daghestan and Shirvan, former con- quests of Peter the Great. Another great war with France became inevitable when Alexan- der found it necessary, by a ukase of Dec. 31, 1810, to set aside one of the provisions of the peace of Tilsit. In 1812 Napoleon inva- ded Russia with an army of 500,000 men, for which Italy, the kings of Prussia and Saxony, and other vassals had been compelled to fur- nish large contingents. The Russians lost the bloody battle on the Moskva, Sept. 7, and even Moscow fell into the hands of the French ; but the burning of the city by the Russians was the beginning of a frightful retreat of the French, during which nearly the whole grand army was destroyed. On Feb. 28, 1813, Russia was joined in her war against France by Prussia, and in August by Austria; two months later the battle of Leipsic decided the issue of the great Franco-Russian war, and in 1814, and again in 1815, Alexander entered