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 266 REISKE RELIGIOUS ORDERS Rotterdam, by the Jansenist bishop of Deven- ter. Soon afterward he took an oath of al- legiance to the government, and received from the emperor of Germany a patent of recogni- tion, requiring his acknowledgment in all re- spects as a Catholic bishop. He issued a pas- toral letter to the Old Catholics of Germany, and a second pastoral in reply to the papal encyclical of Nov. 21. He has also published De Clemente Pretbytero Alexandrine (Breslau, 1851) ; Hilarius von Poitiers (Schaffhausen, 1864) ; Martin von Tours (Breslau, 1866) ; Aristoteles uber Kunst, besondera fiber Trago- die (Vienna, 1870); and Die pdpstlichen De- crete vom 18 Juli 1870 (Munich, 1871). REISKE, Johann Jakob, a German philologist, born at Zorbig, near Leipsic, Dec. 25, 1716, died in Leipsic, Aug. 14, 1774. He was edu- cated at the university of Leipsic, where ho acquired an extensive knowledge of Arabic. He afterward went to Leyden and became a corrector of the press, while his leisure hours were spent in ransacking the oriental treasures of the university library. He also studied medicine, and after remaining in Leyden eight years returned to Leipsic in 1746. He be- came professor of Arabic in 1748, and in 1758 was made rector of the St. Nicholas school in Leipsic. He edited a large number of Greek and Arabic works, and translated Demosthenes and JEschines. His life, partly autobiographi- cal, was published by his wife (1785), and his correspondence with Moses Mendelssohn and Lessing appeared at Berlin in 1789. REISSIGER, Karl Gottlieb, a German composer, born at Belzig, near Wittenberg, Jan. 31, 1798, died in Dresden, Nov. 7, 1859. He was in- tended for the church, but devoted himself to music, became professor at the musical institu- tion of Berlin, and on the death of Weber suc- ceeded him as chapelmaster at Dresden. His most successful operas are Die Fehenmuhle, Libella, Turandot, Adele de Foix, and Der Schiffbruch der Medusa. He is better known by the oratorio David, and his minor pieces, particularly his songs for the bass voice, such as Heine's Zwei Grenadiere. RELIGIOUS ORDERS, the term applied to as- sociations of men or women in the Roman Catholic church and the oriental churches, whose members live in common in convents. The history of these associations is given in the article MONAOHISM. The common bond of union among all the religious orders, and which distinguishes them from other classes of associations, is retirement from the world, celibacy, and their organization, by means of religious vows, into communities of an entirely ecclesiastical character. The official list in the Gerarchia Cattolica of 1875, published in the Vatican, divides religious orders into six class- es : 1, the regular canons, comprising the reg- ular canons of the Most Holy Saviour of the Lateran, those of the basilica of Santa Croce, and the Premonstratensians ; 2, regular clerks, embracing Theatines, Barnabites, Somaschians, Jesuits, minor clerks, ministers of'the infirm, fathers of the Mother of God, and fathers of the pious schools, or Piariste ; 3, religious con- gregations, including the Passionists and Re- demptorists ; 4, ecclesiastical congregations, in- cluding the Doctrinarians, Lazarists or priests of the mission, pious laborer's, oblates of Mary Immaculate, missionaries of the Precious Blood, institute of charity (Rosmini's), priests of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary, priests of the society of missions, priests of the resurrection, priests of the Holy Cross (of Le Mans), broth- ers of the Christian schools, and brothers of mercy ; 5, monks, including the Basilians, Ben- edictines, Carnaldules, hermits of Tuscany, her- mits of Monte Corona, hermits of Vallombrosa, Cistercians, Trappists, Trappists of the Ranee reform, Benedictines of Monte Vergine, Olive- tans, Silvestrines, Chartreux, Antonians (com- prising Chaldeans, Maronites, and Armenians of Mt. Lebanon), Mekhitarists or Armenian Benedictines, and Basilians of the Greco-Mel- chite rite, comprising the Joanites of Pales- tine ; 6, mendicants, including the Dominicans, minor Observants (comprising the reformed Observants, the minor Recollects, and Alcan- tarines), minor Conventuals, minor Capuchins, third order of St. Francis, Augustinians and discalced Augustinians, Carmelites of the prim- itive observance and reformed Carmelites, Ser- vites or servants of Mary, Minims, Mercedari or fathers of the redemption of slaves, Trinita- rians (primitive and reformed), Hieronymites or order of St. Jerome, hospitallers of St. John of God, and fathers of penitence. This classi- fication is founded on the original distinction between the clergy or ordinary ministers of religion and the monks, who in the beginning were mostly or exclusively laymen, or who when priests lived in seclusion, and had no share in the ministrations of the clergy. The partly or wholly monastic forms adopted af- ter the 4th century in the East, and especially in the West, by the cathedral and parochial clergy, caused them to be generally designated as clerici canonici. But this designation, par- ticularly during the reign of feudalism, came to be applied exclusively to the clergy of cathe- dral or collegiate churches, who lived in com- mon under some such rule as that of St. Augus- tine. This gave rise to the institution of can- ons regular. The parochial clergy were organ- ized in this way by Eusebius, bishop of Vercelli (died 370), by St. Ambrose (died 397) in Mi- lan, and by St. Augustine (died 430) at Hippo. This quasi-monastic form was propagated by St. Gregory the Great in Sicily and in Rome before his elevation to the papacy, and accord-, ing to Lingard it was established in England by Augustin, archbishop of Canterbury, and pre- vailed in the chief churches there till supplant- ed by the strict Benedictine rule. The whole clergy of the British islands, as well as of sev- eral continental countries, continued at least during the missionary epoch to live in estab- lishments called monasteries by contemporary