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 648 POLAND the remainder of Great Poland and the towns of Thorn and Dantzic. The despair of the nation broke out in a great insurrection in 1794, for which Madalinski gave the signal. Kosciuszko was called from abroad to lead it as dictator, and, appearing at Cracow, hastily armed the people of the vicinity, partly with pikes and scythes, and routed the Russians at Raclawice (April 4). Warsaw and Lithuania rose; a supreme council was formed; the king was ignored. But the means of the exhaust- ed country were scanty ; arms and unanimity were wanting, and the Russians were soon joined by Prussian and Austrian armies. Kos- ciuszko was defeated at Szczekociny and Za- jonczek at Chelm. Warsaw, besieged by Fred- erick William in person, was saved by a rising in the rear of the Prussians ; but Kosciuszko was overwhelmed by Suvaroff and Fersen at Maciejowice (Oct. 10), and taken prisoner. The storming and massacre of Praga and the capitulation of Warsaw (Nov. 8) followed ; the Polish troops were disbanded ; most of the commanders were dragged into captivity; and Poniatowski resigned his crown at Grodno in 1795. The third division annihilated the exis- tence of Poland, effacing even its name. Rus- sia took all the provinces E. of the Niemen and Bug; Austria those between the latter river, the Pilica, and the Vistula ; Prussia all the re- mainder, with the capital. But the surviving patriots immediately commenced making new endeavors for the restoration of their country. Oginski and others invoked the help of France, Turkey, and Sweden, and Dombrowski succeed- ed in forming in Italy Polish legions for the army of Napoleon, which, after ten years' ser- vice abroad, victoriously reentered their native land. By the treaty of Tilsit (1807) Napoleon transformed the greater part of the Prussian share of Poland into a duchy of Warsaw, which received a tolerably liberal constitution, and a ruler in the person of the king (formerly elec- tor) of Saxony, Frederick Augustus. This lit- tle Polish state made immense exertions in be- half of its French ally and protector on many theatres of war, but especially in the great Rus- sian campaign of 1812, which promised the restoration of the whole of Poland. This hope soon vanished, and the duchy itself was de- stroyed in 1 813, after a gallant resistance. The territorial limits of divided Poland were now rearranged by the congress of Vienna, which, while creating a shadow of Polish indepen- dence in the miniature republic of Cracow, naturally gave the lion's share to Alexander of Russia. The czar formed his new acquisitions, extending from the Niemen and Bug to the Prosna, into the so-called kingdom of Poland, to which he gave a constitutional form of gov- ernment, a separate responsible ministry, and a national army of 50,000 men. Of this sepa- rated and privileged part of his vast Polish pos- sessions the czar was the king, and his brother Constantine, its military governor and general- issimo, the virtual viceroy, Gen. Zajonczek be- ing the nominal one. But the harmony be- tween the foreign rulers and the people could be but superficial, and it was but of brief du- ration. Mutual distrust prevailed from the beginning ; the opposition to the government gained strength from diet to diet; violations of the constitution and attempts at conspir- acy grew frequent ; Constantine tortured the army by excessive drilling, and alienated its best officers by insults ; and after the acces- sion of Nicholas (1825) an open rupture became imminent. Nevertheless the outbreak at War- saw, precipitated by a small band of youthful democratic conspirators under Peter Wysocki, which drove Constantine and his Russians in the night of Nov. 29-30, 1830, from that cap- ital, took both the emperor and the nation by surprise. The whole people immediately de- clared in favor of the revolution, but the aris- tocrats took the lead with the intention of moderating its course. To this party belong- ed Prince Adam Czartoryski, president of the provisional government; the old poet Niem- ce wicz ; Chlopicki, for a short time dictator ; his successors in the chief command of the army, Radziwill, Skrzynecki, Dembinski, and Mala- chowski ; and the generals Dwernicki, Chrza- nowski, Bern, Uminski, Rybinski, and Prond- zynski. The agitations of Lelewel, Mochnacki, and other democrats, had no other result but an increase of difficulties. Much precious time was wasted in attempted negotiations, the army increased slowly, and a powerful Russian army under Diebitsch was allowed to cross the Bug without resistance. The independence of Po- land and the exclusion of the house of Roman- off having been declared (Jan. 25, 1831), a se- ries of bloody battles was fought near War- saw, especially at Dobre, Wawer, and Gro- chow, in February and March, and on the mid- dle Narew and Bug and at Ostrolenka in May, in which the Polish commanders displayed great courage but little generalship. Dwer- nicki, sent to revolutionize Volhynia, had been compelled to retire into Galicia, and there to surrender to the Austrians ; another corps, sent under Gielgud and Chlapowski to the assistance of the Samogitian and Lithuanian insurgents, shared the same fate on Prussian territory in July, Dembinski alone saving his detachment by an admirable retreat ; the main army remained inactive around the capital, allowing the new Russian commander-in-chief Paskevitch to cross the lower Vistula on the Prussian frontier, and to advance toward War- saw on the left bank of that river. The people growing impatient, Skrzynecki was deposed, presumed traitors were massacred in a night of horrors (Aug. 15), and Krukowiecki suc- ceeded Czartoryski as president of the govern- ment. Ramorino having been sent to the south- east with a part of the Polish army, Paskevitch finally attacked the fortified capital, and after a murderous struggle, during which Kruko- wiecki negotiated, a capitulation virtually end- ed the war (Sept. 8). The main army under