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 PAPAL STATES ported by the popes and the Ghibellines by the emperors. In the midst of these disorders Cola di Rienzi succeeded in establishing him- self at Rome (1347), and with the title of tri- bune of the people enforced the laws, curbed the license of the barons, and restored peace and prosperity to the commonwealth. But his reign was short. Driven from Rome by the citizens, he languished several years in prison at Avignon, until the disorders in Italy became so violent that Pope Innocent VI. sent him back with the title of senator in 1354, in com- pany with the legate Cardinal Gil Albornoz. Rienzi was received in triumph at Rome, but was killed in a popular insurrection at the end of four months. Albornoz gained several vic- tories in the field, and reduced the Romagna, the Marches, and the Oampagna to obedience ; but his successes were only temporary. The confusion was increased soon after by a series of antipopes, who for many years divided with the legitimate pontiffs the obedience of the Christian world, appointed their own cardinals, and were sometimes in possession of Rome, whither the throne was carried back by Greg- ory XI. in 1377. The schism was healed in 1417 by the council of Constance, which award- ed the tiara to Martin V., and the Roman states began to enjoy a more regular form of gov- ernment. But Eugenius IV. (1431-'47) was driven from his capital by a popular insurrec- tion, and a short-lived republic was instituted, which his minister Vitelleschi suppressed with great cruelty. Alexander VI. (1492-1503) sub- dued the turbulent nobles of the Marches ; and a still further advance toward the consolidation of the state was made by the warrior pontiff Julius II. (1503-'13), who reduced the barons to obedience, joined the league of Cambrai with France, Austria, and Aragon against the Venetians, and, having secured his objects, then united with Venice to expel the French. At the time of his death the great sources of dis- turbance in central Italy were the wars of the French and Spaniards in the N". and S. extrem- ities of the peninsula. His successor Leo X. (1513-'21) not only restored peace, but made some additions to his territory; and from this time the States of the Church acquired a more compact and homogeneous character. Clement VII. (1523-'34) formed a league with Venice, France, and England against the em- peror Charles V., which entailed numerous misfortunes upon him. Rome in 1527 was stormed and pillaged by the imperial troops under the constable de Bourbon, and the pope was seven months a prisoner. Under Clem- ent XI. (1700-'21) the States of the Church were invaded by the Austrian archduke Charles, and Sicily, Sardinia, Parma, and Pia- cenza, ancient nominal fiefs of the holy see, were transferred to other hands. Clement XIII. (1758-'69) was deprived of Avignon, Benevento, and other places, and involved in contests with nearly every state in Europe on account of his protection of the Jesuits ; but Clement XIV. (1769-'74), by suppressing the obnoxious order, recovered what his prede- cessor had lost. The liberality and virtues of Pius VI. (1775-' 9 9) were no safeguard against the violence of revolutionary France ; and after Bonaparte had wrested from him Bologna, Ferrara, and Ravenna, and added them to the Cisalpine republic, he was de- throned in February, 1798, and carried captive to France, where he died. A republic was pro- claimed at Rome by the French general Ber- thier, but it came to an end in 1799. In March, 1800, Pius VII. was elected at Venice, Rome being then in a state of anarchy ; and in July, 1801, after the peace of Luneville, he made a concordat with Bonaparte. The refusal of Pius VII. to expel from his dominions the subjects of all those powers who were at war with France led to a fresh invasion; in February, 1808, Bonaparte's troops took possession of Rome; in April, Ancona, Macerata, Fermo, and Urbino were united to the " kingdom of Italy ;" in May, 1809, Napoleon declared the remainder of the Roman states annexed to the French empire ; and soon afterward the pope was carried prisoner to France, and did not return till 1814. The congress of Vienna re- stored to him all the territories of the church. The pontificates of Leo XII. (1823-'9) and Pius VIII. (1829-'31) were comparatively tranquil. In February, 1831, soon after the accession of Gregory XVI., an insurrection broke out in Bologna and other places, but by the assistance of Austrian troops it was speedily suppressed. Pius IX. was elected June 16, 1846, and at once inaugurated a series of reforms and con- cessions. The revolution which broke out in France and northern Italy in 1848 produced a powerful effect at Rome. The pope in March issued a proclamation promising a constitution on a liberal basis, with deliberative chambers, and at the same time formed a new cabinet composed of ten laymen and only three eccle- siastics. He could not avoid taking part with Charles Albert in hostilities against Austria ; and in September it became necessary to con- struct a new ministry. On Nov. 15, the day appointed for the opening of the chambers, the prime minister Rossi was assassinated, and the next day the populace, assisted by the civic guard, forced their way into the Quirinal and compelled the pope to accept a radical ministry. On the 24th he escaped in disguise to Gaeta, and after some ineffectual negotia- ting to induce him to return, the chambers at Rome appointed a triumvirate; a constituent assembly was called, which on Feb. 9, 1849, dethroned the pope and proclaimed a repub- lic. The Roman states now entered heartily into the Italian war of independence. The government was nominally administered by Mazzini, Armellini, and Saffi, but the power was really shared between Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Avezzana. The French government re- solved upon restoring Pius IX., and in April an army under Gen. Oudinot landed at Civita