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 PHILOSOPHICAL ANATOMY 423 brae are: 1. The occipital, consisting of the body, two condyles, and crest of this bone ; this is also the auditory vertebra, as it encloses the auditory bones, and that part of the en- cephalon which gives off the nerves of hear- ing. 2. The parietal, consisting of the body of the posterior sphenoid, the greater wings, and the parietal bones ; this is also the lingual vertebra, the maxillary and lingual nerves pass- ing through the wings. 3. The frontal, com- posed of the body of the anterior sphenoid, orbital or lesser wings, and two frontals ; this is also the optic vertebra, the optic nerves pass- ing through the orbital plates ; it also surrounds the cerebrum. 4. The nasal, consisting of vo- mer, ethmoid, and two nasal bones, contain- ing the olfactory nerves. The skull contains, therefore, a vertebra to each sense ; the sense of touch is disseminated over the whole body, and its vertebrae are 35, 15 in the neck and chest, 5 in the abdomen, and 15 in the lumbar, sacral, and caudal regions. This system is nor- mal only in the human type, animals being irregular men. He says the pectoral and ab- dominal muscles are ennobled in the muscles of the face ; the mouth is the stomach in the head, the nose the lung, the tongue the end of the intestine converted into muscle, and the salivary glands the liver. The poet Goethe first suggested to anatomists the idea of repre- senting the mutual relations of the bones by figurative diagrams ; he had conceived the idea of the cranial vertebrae as early as 1790, but did not make it public until after Oken's in- augural dissertation in 1807. In his essays on comparative anatomy (1819-'20) he made six vertebrae in the mammalian head, three on the posterior part enclosing the " cerebral treasure" and its delicate subdivisions, and three anterior communicating with the external world ; these vertebras are the occipital, posterior and ante- rior sphenoid, palatal, upper jaw, and inter- maxillary. Dum^ril (Magasin encyclopedique, 1808) showed the analogy of the cranial seg- ments and their muscles to the spinal vertebras and muscles ; he regarded the basi-occipital bone as a vertebral body, the condyles as ob- lique processes, the occipital protuberance as a spinous process, and the mastoid as a trans- verse process. He considered the body of the sphenoid as perhaps a second vertebral centre, but rather inclined to the opinion that the head consisted of a single huge vertebra, with sim- ilar form, use, and muscular attachments as a spinal vertebra. Spix (Cephalogenesis, 1815) adopted the number and composition of the cranial vertebras of Oken's system, only giving them new names. De Blainville (1816) taught in his lectures that the head consists of a series of consolidated vertebrae, developed in propor- tion to the nervous system contained within them, with simple appendages (ribs), or com- pound (jaws, limbs, &c.) ; this is further devel- oped in his Osteographie (1839) and Histoire des sciences de I 1 organisation (1845). Bojanus (/m, 1818) made four cranial vertebrae, the fourth being the nasal, whose neural arch he determined, and the ribs of the tympanic ; he named the vertebrae acoustic, gustatory, optic, and olfactory. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire (Anna- les du museum d'histoire naturelle, 1807, vols. ix. and x.) recognized the homology of the pec- toral fins of fishes with the anterior extremities of birds, of the bony apparatus of a sternum and its annexes with these parts in higher ver- tebrates; he attempted the determination of the cranial bones in the crocodile, dividing them into those of the mouth, nose, eye, ear, and brain, regarding the skull as a kind of house with chambers for the lodgment and protec- tion of the brain and organs of sense, but he did not at that time appear to have had the idea of cranial vertebrae ; he showed that the cranium of birds was composed of the same bony pieces as that of man and mammals, rec- ognizing a unity of plan of organic composi- tion in all the vertebrata. His Philosophic anatomique (2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1818-'22) de- veloped his ideas on the homologies of the ver- tebrate skeleton ; in the Memoir es du museum d>histoire naturelle (vol. ix., 1822, pp. 76-119) he gives his ideas on the structure and typical form of the vertebra, and a representation in fig. 5. In the Annales des sciences naturelles (vol. iii., 1824) he explains in a synoptic table (plate 9) the composition of the bony head of man and vertebrates ; he makes seven vertebras, as follows, from before backward : the labial, nasal, ocular, cerebral, quadrigeminal, auricular, and cerebellar. He studied the homologies of the haemal arches more carefully than his pre- decessors ; he made nine pieces in each verte- bra, combining, however, some of the parts of the external or dermal skeleton to which the vertebral theory does not apply ; he regarded the branchial arches of fishes as the homologues of the tracheal rings of terrestrial vertebrates. With all his errors, Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire gave a great impetus to the study of philosophical anatomy in France. His most powerful and constant antagonist was Cuvier, who treated with ridicule and contempt this form of Ger- man philosophy ; these two anatomists carried on their discussions, both by lectures and wri- tings, with all the eagerness and often the bit- terness of a partisan spirit; ability and bril- liancy were on the side of Cuvier, but truth and the more philosophical treatment of the sub- ject were with Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire. Carus of Dresden (1828) was the most successful cul- tivator of philosophical anatomy after Oken; in his Grundzuge der vergleichenden Anatomie und Physiologic (translated into French by Jourdan, Brussels, 1838) he gives fair credit, though with slight mention, to French anato- mists, and lays great stress upon the researches of Germans in this direction ; he says inciden- tally that philosophic osteology owes nothing to the English and Italians, an assertion since contradicted by the appearance of the works of Richard Owen, who, if any one, may be said to represent the present opinion of the scien-