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 422 PHILOLOGY PHILOSOPHICAL ANATOMY afterward developed into the various forms of Greek philosophy. In his characteristic doctrine of the Logos and of the ideal and archetypal world, he anticipated the specula- tions of the Gnostics. The best edition of his works is that of Thomas Mangey (2 vols., Lon- don, 1742), but additional treatises were dis- covered by Cardinal Mai (1818), and others exist in Armenian versions (Venice, 1822). There is an English translation of Philo by Mr. C. D. Yonge in Bonn's "Ecclesiastical Library" (4 vols. 12mo). See Gfrorer, Philo und die alexandrinische TheosopMe (1835), and Bruno Bauer, Philo, Strauss und Renan und das Ur- christenthum (1874). PHILOLOGY. See LANGUAGE. PHILOPCEME1V, a Greek general, born about 252 B. C., died by poison in Messene in 183. His father, Craugis, belonged to a noble family of Arcadia, and was one of the most promi- nent men of Megalopolis ; but dying early, he left his son to be brought up by his friend Ole- ander. He first appears prominently in 222, when, Oleomenes III. of Sparta having seized upon Megalopolis by night, Philopoemen with a few others made a most determined resistance. In 221, Antigonus Doson coming into the Peloponnesus to the assistance of the Achae- an league, Philopoemen joined his army with 1,000 foot and a detachment of cavalry, and contributed to the victory of Sellasia, where he refused to leave the field, though severely wounded. He afterward went to Crete and assisted the city of Lyctus in its war against Cnossus. Aratus, the leader of the Achaean league, died in 213, and Philopoemen in 210 was made commander of the cavalry. In 209 he accompanied Philip, the successor of Antigonus Doson, in the expedition against Elis, and in a battle near the river Larissus de- feated the ^Etolians and Eleans, and slew their leader, Demophantus, with his own hand. In 208 Philopoemen became strategus of the Achae- an confederation. A war broke out between the Achaeans and Machanidas, tyrant of Sparta, and in a battle fought at Mantinea he totally routed the enemy, himself killing the Spartan king. In 202 Nabis, who had succeeded Ma- chanidas, seized upon Messene, and Philopoe- men collected a body of armed men and drove the tyrant back into Laconia, and the following year again defeated him at Scotitas. He sub- sequently again took part in Cretan conflicts. In 194 Nabis invaded Achaia, and besieged Gythium. To relieve this town Philopoemen fitted out a fleet, which failed to accomplish its purpose ; but marching against Sparta, although he fell into an ambush, he defeated the enemy with terrible slaughter. Shortly after his return Nabis was murdered by his ^Etolian auxiliaries, whereupon Philopoemen hastened to Sparta and induced that city to join the Achaean league. In 189 the party hostile to him gained the su- preme power there, and the connection with the league was dissolved, 30 of Philopcemen's friends being put to death. He now marched into Laconia. Sparta submitted, and was treat- ed with great rigor. His severe measures of- fered an opportunity to the Romans of again interfering, who compelled the granting of a general amnesty and the restoration of political exiles. In 183 Philopoemen was elected strate- gus for the eighth and last time. Messene hav- ing dissolved its connection with the league, Philopoemen collected a detachment of cavalry and hastened forward to reduce it, but was re- pulsed and thrown from his horse, fell into the hands of the enemy, and was thrown into a dungeon by Dinocrates, the Messenian lead- er, who at night sent an executioner to him with a cup of poison. On receiving the news of his death Lycortas at the head of an army immediately entered Messenia and ravaged the country far and wide. Dinocrates slew him- self, and his accomplices in poisoning Philo- poemen were stoned to death. The body of Philopoemen was burned, and the ashes were put in an urn and carried to Megalopolis by the historian Polybius, in a solemn procession of the army ; and statues to his memory were erected in almost all the cities of the league. PHILOSOPHICAL ANATOMY, a department of anatomical science, based on data furnished by descriptive and comparative anatomy, embry- ology, and histology. It is also called trans- cendental anatomy, as it seeks a fundamental unity in all the forms of nature, and, in the usual restricted signification of the term, aims to establish a primary plan or archetype of which all skeletons, at least of the vertebrata, are modifications. As early as 1807 Oken made three cranial vertebrae, which he calls those of the ear, jaw, and eye, proceeding from behind forward ; the auditory nerves traverse the first, the trifacial the second, and the optic the an- terior or third ; the petrous bone he considers a sense capsule of the ear ; he recognizes the vomer as a fourth rudimentary vertebral body, with the lachrymal bones as laminae or neura- pophyses, and the nasals as spinous processes or neural spines ; the palate bones he regards as the ribs of the head anchylosed ; the squa- mous portion of the temporal bone of mammals and the tympanic of birds represent the scapula and ilium of the head ; he recognized the arm, forearm, and hand in different parts of the up- per jaw, and the corresponding bones of the posterior limbs in the lower jaw ; the clavicles of the head were the pterygoid bones. In fact, the head was to him a repetition of the whole trunk with all its systems; he even states as a fundamental principle that the whole osseous system is only a repetition of a vertebra. Af- ter various modifications suggested by other ob- servers or the results of his own researches, in 1843, in his " Physiophilosophy " (Ray society translation, London, 1847), he pursues his cra- nial homologies still further, always regarding the head as a repetition of the trunk, a doctrine strenuously combated by Owen and others. His theory is detailed at length in the work just quoted, pp. 318-422. His cranial verte-