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 318 PERSIA residence of the heir apparent to the throne ; Meshed (70,000), in Khorasan, one of the holi- est of Mohammedan cities; Ispahan (60,000), formerly capital of the kingdom and still its most stately city; Shiraz (40,000), also once the Persian capital, and architecturally one of the most attractive towns of the present day ; Hamadan (40,000), the ancient Echatana; Yezd (40,000), in the province of the same name; Kermanshah (25,000), renowned for its man- ufacture of carpets ; Lar and Kerman in the south; Shuster, on the river Karun, up to which that stream has been navigated ; Resht and Balfrush, near the Caspian sea; and Bu- shire, on the Persian gulf. The entire number of villages is about 8,000, with an average of 300 inhabitants to each, although some have a population of 2,000. The nomadic tribes are known as Iliyats or Eeliauts. Some of these tribes have become stationary, and have de- voted themselves to agriculture, though still preserving their union as tribe men ; but the rest of them are wanderers, who with their families and flocks change their quarters each summer and winter in search of pasture to grounds more or less distant belonging to the tribe, and which cannot be encroached on by other clans. (See ILIYATS.) The tribes com- prise four races, viz., Turks, Kurds, Leks, and Arabs. The first are invaders from Turkistan, who from time immemorial have established themselves in Persia, and who still preserve their language. The Kurds are not numerous in Persia, the greater part of the nation living in Turkey. They are supposed to be of Persian descent, and speak a dialect of the Persian language. The Leks are of genuine Persian blood, and are supposed to be descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the country. The Arab Iliyats are descended chiefly from the Mohammedans who conquered Persia in the 7th century, but they have lost their original language and become Persians both in speech and appearance. The Iliyats are inveterate robbers, and their turbulence has for several centuries been a frequent cause of internal dis- turbance. Among the leading nomadic tribes are the Ilkhani of the Kashkai mountains in N. Azerbijan, who have from 25,000 to 30,- 000 tents; the Sheghaghi, also of Azerbijan, 15,000 tents; the Kelhor of Kermanshah, 11,- 000 tents; and the Zengeneh, 10,000 tents; there is an average of five or six persons to a tent. The lesser tribes are probably 100 in number. The occupations of the wandering families when at peace are principally pas- toral, and they live on the produce of the flocks and and herds. Black bread, sour milk, and occasionally a little meat form their food. The number of those who move in a body de- pends on the extent of pasture they can com- mand. They encamp usually in the form of a square or street, the tent of the chief in the centre. When the pastures are bare they shift to some other spot. The nomads are mo- nogamous. Their women do not, like other Mohammedans, veil their faces, but share the fatigues and the dangers of the men. They are bold and skilful riders, and can use the gun or the spear on an emergency. Among the settled inhabitants of Persia, the chief dis- tinction of classes is into the courtiers, or the civil and military officers of the government ; the citizens, comprising merchants, shopkeep- ers, artisans, men of learning, and of the reli- gious orders ; and lastly the peasants or culti- vators of the ground. The Persians connect- ed with the government are generally well informed, acute, polished in manner, lively, good-natured, and exceedingly self-possessed ; but they are accused of being, with a few ex- ceptions, deceitful, treacherous, and venal, and, where they can be so with impunity, ar-, rogant and overbearing. The inhabitants of the towns are a mixed race of Turks, Tartars, Arabians, Armenians, and Georgians, engraft- ed on the stock of the ancient Persians. They are in general industrious, cheerful, polite, so- ciable, quick of apprehension, and, although mendacious and cunning, evince an aptitude for almost any employment and are remark- able for their powers of endurance. The mer- chants are numerous, and many of them are wealthy, though from fear of spoliation they do not often display their riches. Some of them are among the most cultivated men in the country. The ecclesiastical body, which in- cludes the expounders of the written law, is very numerous, rich, and powerful, and con- sists of many orders, the highest of whom are called mushtesheds, and are seldom more than four or five in number. They rise to office by superior learning and sanctity, and their duties relate largely to the protection of the people against the oppressions of their rulers. The mollahs or common priests, who swarm in every city, have a very low reputation. The owners of land in Persia seldom cultivate it themselves, but let it to tenants, who divide the produce with the landlords. The peasantry suffer most from the rapacity and oppression of their rulers, but appear to be tolerably happy and contented. They display much in- dustry and intelligence, and are kind and hos- pitable ; their houses are comfortable and neat, and they and their families are generally well fed and clothed. Persian bread, which is rarely more than half baked, is made in the form of large thin flat cakes, and enters large- ly into the sustenance of the population, the meat supply being confined chiefly to the towns, where mutton and lamb are usually to be had, and occasionally beef. In addition to bread, eggs, chickens, and fruit are the or- dinary articles of food throughout the coun- try. A good deal of curded milk, called yaourt in Turkish, is consumed in some dis- tricts. The water is usually not very good. Many of the Persian women of the upper classes are exceedingly fair and beautiful, the frequent mixture of Georgian and Circassian blood having greatly improved the appearance