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 PAUPERISM 183 This scheme was soon abandoned, and the au- thorities fell back on the old system of forced labor in institutions called "houses of correc- tion." Louis XVI. in 1777 decreed the erec- tion of a large number of these ; but he soon found himself powerless to realize his designs. A great and sincere effort was made by the national assembly in 1791 to find an effective remedy for French pauperism. In March, 1793, after a succession of expensive experi- ments, it was decreed that central almshouses (depots de mendicite) should be established at the national expense, to which all able-bodied beggars without exception were to be sent ; but it was only by the law of July, 1808, that this measure received a thorough execution. This law enacted that a central almshouse should be erected and maintained by the gov- ernment in every department. In a short time 59 of these departmental almshouses were opened, calculated to accommodate 22,500 pau- pers ; but only 33 were applied to their origi- nal purpose, and even these gradually became asylums for the insane and incurable, or were converted into jails. These almshouses were entirely neglected under the restoration. Af- ter the revolution of 1830 the causes and rem- edies of pauperism were once more thorough- ly investigated by legislative commissions, and the system of departmental almshouses was revived on the principle that in future paupers should be incited to support themselves by their labor. Pauperism declined rapidly in consequence till 1848, when the withdrawal of government aid from the departmental alms- houses was considered a virtual abrogation of the law of 1808. Under the second empire the central almshouses were favored by the government, while in the cities and communes local boards of charity (bureaux de lienfai- sance) were established, with funds raised by voluntary contributions. In this way in 1860 upward of 1,300 institutions supplied relief to the impotent adult poor ; foundlings, orphans, and abandoned children being provided for in appropriate asylums. The war of 1870-'71 increased destitution and disease enormously, while the public resources were proportionately lessened. In 1872, besides several new hos- pitals and asylums erected by private munifi- cence, France possessed 46 departmental aims- houses, and 12,867 local boards of charity. The minister of the interior has the general control of all charitable institutions in France, besides directing more immediately certain large establishments of a special character. The charities of Paris are controlled by a di- rector acting under a council composed of emi- nent laymen and clergymen, the president of which is the prefect of the Seine. The local board of each city arrondissement distributes relief supplementary to that bestowed in the public hospitals and asylums ; and the society of St. Vincent de Paul is very efficient in dis- covering hidden distress and distributing pri- vate alms. The communal or parish boards are composed of the mayor and pastor, assist- ed by some of the principal parishioners ; and every means is taken by them to stimulate the generosity of the citizens. As Belgium was under French rule in 1808, the law establish- ing departmental depots de mendicite applied to that country, and is still in force there. These, together with the numerous religious establishments, and a few free pauper colonies supported by private associations, afford con- siderable relief to the large pauper population. In Holland the chief features of the system of public assistance are the three pauper colonies of Amsterdam, Middelburg, and Groningen, in which all vagrant and able-bodied paupers are forced to work for their own support. There are besides free pauper colonies for destitute families, which are supported by private char- ity. In the Scandinavian kingdoms the an- cient methods of parochial relief have been but little interfered with. The established church is still the principal minister of charity, the government only coming to the assistance of the parochial administration to check vagrancy and provide compulsory employment for the able-bodied. In Denmark assistance is given chiefly in the form of loans, which the poor are expected to repay by their labor. Throughout the German empire the laws against mendicity and vagrancy are strictly enforced. The ancient methods of parish relief are maintained, central workhouses and almshouses exist in every prov- ince, and the hospitals, asylums, &c., are aided by government grants. In most provinces a poor tax is raised by compulsory assessments, in others the property holders assess them- selves ; but if they do it too lightly, the rate is increased by the government. In the Aus- trian empire public assistance is also organized on the communal or municipal basis. The sys- tem of relief in general use outside of Hungary was first introduced in Bohemia in 1779 by Count Bouquoy, and was afterward sanctioned and propagated by the emperor Joseph II. The parish boards or " institutes of the poor " (Armen-Instituten) are composed of the pas- tor, two overseers or "fathers of the poor" (Armenvater), and an auditor, who is account- able to the parishioners. These confine them- selves chiefly, and in many places exclusively, to relieving the impotent, and supporting luna- tic asylums, lying-in and foundling hospitals, and orphanages. Switzerland in 1643 agreed upon a general law of settlement and removal, each canton binding itself to support its own poor, and mendicancy and vagrancy being se- verely punished. By the federal law of 1850 each commune is obliged to provide aid for the impotent and work for the able-bodied. Young people of both sexes are to be apprenticed out when unprovided for by their parents, and these are held responsible for the conduct of children under 14, and masters for that of their apprentices. In European countries professing the Roman Catholic religion, the church until quite recently was the great administrator of