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 JAMES MADISON 825 the acts aforesaid are unconstitutional, and that the necessary and proper measures will be taken by each for cooperating with this state in maintaining unimpaired the authorities, rights, and liberties reserved to the states re- spectively, or to the people." The resolutions passed the house by a vote of 100 to 63, and were duly communicated to the several states of the Union. They met with little favor, especially in the northern states. Massachu- setts and New England generally remonstrated against them, and declared the obnoxious laws both constitutional and expedient. This drew forth, in the winter of 1799-1800, Madison's " Report" in defence of his resolutions. This elaborate paper subjected the resolves to an exhaustive analysis, and defended them with masterly vigor. It is the most famous of his political writings, and will rank with the great- est state papers written in America. Although the resolutions met with an unfavorable re- sponse from the other states, they exerted a powerful influence upon public opinion. Vir- ginia had shown how deeply in earnest she was by directing the establishment of two arsenals, and an armory sufficiently large to store 10,000 muskets and other arms; but a wholesome change in the sentiment of the country happi- ly restored good feeling, and softened down all bitterness. The alien and sedition laws found few supporters ultimately, and Madison's views were fully vindicated. The revulsion against the federal party and in favor of the republi- cans terminated in the election of Jefferson, who entered upon the presidency in 1801. Madison was secretary of state during Jeffer- son's entire administration, and his opinions upon public affairs closely agreed with the views of the president. He became still more popular with and acceptable to his party, and toward the end of Jefferson's second term was generally spoken of for the presidency. A caucus was finally held of the majority of the republican members of congre'ss, and Madison was nominated. This met with bitter opposi- tion from a wing of the party, headed by John Randolph, who were friendly to the election of Monroe. They published a caustic " Protest " against the action of the caucus, and denounced Madison for his " want of energy," his connec- tion with the "Federalist," and his report upon the Yazoo claims. His friends defended him against all the charges, and retorted so strongly upon the authors of the protest that they were silenced. The action of the caucus was approved by the party generally, and Mad- ison was elected by a vote of 122 out of 175, and took his seat as president, March 4, 1809. The members of his cabinet were : secretary of state, Robert Smith of Maryland, succeeded by James Monroe of Virginia, April 2, 1811 ; secretary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin of Pennsylvania till Feb. 9, 1814, George W. Campbell of Tennessee till Oct. 6, 1814, after- ward Alexander J. Dallas of Pennsylvania; secretary of war, William Eustis of Massachu- setts till Jan. 13, 1813, and William H. Craw- ford of Georgia from March 3, 1815, James Monroe acting in the interim ; secretary of the navy, Paul Hamilton of South Carolina till Jan. 12, 1813, William Jones of Pennsylvania till Dec. 17, 1814, afterward Benjamin W. Crowninshield of Massachusetts; postmaster general, Gideon Granger of New York, suc- ceeded by Return J. Meigs of Ohio, March 17, 1814; attorney general, Caesar A. Rodney of Delaware till Dec. 11, 1811, William Pinkney of Maryland till Feb. 10, 1814, afterward Rich- ard Rush of Pennsylvania. President Madison entered upon his duties at a crisis in public affairs which required the utmost foresight, resolution, and prudence. Great Britain and the United States were on the verge of war. In 1807 the long series of wrongs inflicted by England upon the commerce of Amer- ica, and the rights of her seamen, had been consummated by the affair of the Leopard and Chesapeake. This wanton insult had thrown the country into violent commotion, and occasioned the embargo, which had been succeeded by the non-intercourse act, prohib- iting all commerce with France or England until the decrees of the French emperor and the British orders in council in relation to the seizure of neutrals and the impressment of seamen were repealed. The first act of the British cabinet did not encourage hopes of peace. Mr. Erskine, the English minister, in promising reparation for the affair of the Ches- apeake and a repeal of the obnoxious orders in council, on condition of a renewal of inter- course on the part of the United States, was declared to have exceeded his authority, and was recalled. He was succeeded by Mr. Jack- son, who was authorized to enter into nego- tiations for a commercial treaty, but who speedily became embroiled with the secre- tary of state. The president directed the secre- tary to receive no further communications from him, and soon afterward requested his recall. This was complied with, but no cen- sure was visited upon the envoy, and no other was sent in his place. In May, 1810, congress approved the course of the executive, declared the official communications of Mr. Jackson highly indecorous and insolent, and passed a new act of non-intercourse. This provided that if either France or England repealed her hostile decrees, and the other did not within three months do likewise, then intercourse should be renewed with the one, while with the other non-intercourse should be persisted in. In August the French minister for foreign affairs gave notice to the American minister that the Berlin and Milan decrees had been revoked by the emperor; and in November Madison issued his proclamation, declaring the fact, and announcing that the act of non-inter- course would be revived as to Great Britain unless her orders in council should be revoked within three months from the date of the pro- clamation. The British government resisted