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 LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 195 hardly mentioned except for the unfruitful theories they contain. Pomponius Atticus (about 60), who kept a sort of factory for the multiplication of manuscripts, was probably well versed in the literature of his day, and capable of rendering a just verdict on its merits ; but none of his various historical and critical writings have come down to us. Historiog- raphy and eloquence were totally remodelled in respect to plan, method, and form, and gained the highest excellence in the prose literature of this age. It is not known how great was the merit of the historical works and chronicles of Lucceius (about 60), Cor- nelius Nepos (about 54), Atticus, and Asinius Pollio (about 40). The fragments of Nepos show only that they were written in a simple style and a sober tone, indicative of good taste. This style was carried to perfection in Caesar's Commentaries, which are among the proudest monuments of Latin literature. But the most clear-sighted and artistic Roman histo- rian was Sallust (about 45), whose works were largely read and closely imitated. Eloquence was greatly needed in the days of the fall of the republic, and the antagonism between the party leaders of varied culture was productive of florid rhetorical displays. Quintus Horten- sius was early renowned for the Asiatic rich- ness of his speeches, which were also models of logical arrangement. He had many imi- tators and rivals, and it is to be supposed that men like Ca3lius Rufus and Licinius Calvus exhibited equal powers of oratory, the one in ebullitions and the other in concealments of passion. Cassar's speeches were always simple ; those of Asinius Pollio equally so, but replete with archaic expressions, which were probably to be found also in the discourses of Servius Sulpicius and Marcus Calidius. The master in this sphere of literary effort was undoubtedly Cicero, though he certainly did not occupy as high a rank in his own day as the grammarians and his disciples have since assigned to him. To many contemporaries he did not seem sufficiently brief and concrete ; and though he found many imitators, there were others who considered his style too florid. Cicero made use of a large amount of well grounded in- formation, drawn from Greek literature and native philosophy and history, and he enriched the Latin vocabulary, which hardly went be- yond the most immediate needs of business and law, not only with new words, but also with new means of employing old ones. Upon the simple and untutored language was grad- ually reared the so-called classical Latinity, which may in a measure be regarded as Cicero's own work. Latin literature after his time was of another cast. The Augustan age, be- ginning with the year after the battle of Ac- tium (31 B. 0.), and 13 years after the death of Cicero, presents indeed a great contrast. The wild days of republican anarchy had confused the ^ morals of the nation, and a wonderful realism set in, of which the poets came to be the most ardent exponents. Augustus, though himself hardly a literary person, did every- thing in his power to further literary pursuits. He rewarded prominent poets and learned men, and encouraged them by his presence at their readings and discourses. Without Au- gustus, Virgil's ^Eneid would probably not have been completed; Ovid's most brilliant poems were composed under the favor of his court; and even Horace, though shy of the emperor's luxurious train, could not withhold his praise of the endeavors of Augustus to raise the standard and to widen the fields of Roman literature. Libraries were organized, and public newspapers, or wall posters, were edited by the state. The wealthier classes became in their turn protectors of literary men, and constituted an audience which an author felt stimulated to address. Maecenas, without himself coveting literary fame, was surrounded by a multitude of poets whom his clear judgment and excellent taste had drawn out of obscurity, and to whom his purse was always open. Asinius Pollio also was a warm friend of the great minds of his time, and they enjoyed the advantage of having in him an excellent judge of literary worth. Juris- prudence, grammar, and rhetoric now received more careful cultivation. The lawyers Alf enus Varus, Antistius Labeo, Trebastius Testa, and Ateius Capito distinguished themselves by nu- merous genuinely scientific works. The gram- marians Ateius, Valgius Rufus, Julius Hyginus, and Yerrius Elaccus came to be looked upon as authorities by the new generation of authors, especially the poets. The rhetoricians also began to exercise a healthy influence, princi- pally on the style and logical sequence of com- positions. The most celebrated among them were Porcius Latro, Albucius Silus, Arellius Fuscus, and even the arrogant Greek Cestius Pius. But the glory of the Augustan age was its poetry. The poets were not such great flatterers of Augustus as is often maintained. Yirgil wove into his epos the interests of the gens Julia, but otherwise the school of poetry of this age was neither officious nor untrue. There was no need of courting solely imperial favor, as the poets had warm friends among the better classes of the Roman people. They were assiduous students of Greek art, and their poems naturally abound with Graecisrns and imitations, though to a less extent than is usually asserted. Many forms of Alexan- drine origin were introduced, and others of common speech were reshaped according to the requirements of art. The mastery of form, correct in grammar and rhythmic flexion, rich in language, and perfect in metre, deserves the highest admiration ; and its severe elaboration did not break its easy grace. This age pro- duced every class of poetry, from the epos to the poetic epistle and the didactic poem, in equal perfection. The polished elegies of Ti- bullus celebrate his loves and his short martial experience in Gaul. PropertiuS abounded in