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 HENRY VIII. (ENGLAND) 649 Empson and Dudley, the obnoxious ministers of the late king, to vengeance, together with their instruments. He returned fines that had been unjustly or oppressively exacted. Much was hoped and expected of him, and not alto- gether in vain. Though addicted to pleasure, he was not unmindful of business, and paid special attention to foreign affairs. His man- lers were pleasing, yet he evinced at an early jriod not a little of that obstinacy which be- came his chief trait in later life. He is often spoken of as a lavish prince, but Wolsey said that he was the most avaricious man in the world. Had he died within 20 years from his accession, he would have been the most popu- monarch in English history. His foreign connections began early. In 1510 he received the golden rose from Pope Julius II., who wished to obtain his aid to expel the French from Italy; but at first he was disposed to be moderate, and to pursue substantially the >olicy of his father. He made a treaty with ranee, and then entered into engagements nth his father-in-law, guaranteeing his Span- sh dominions against the French, and sent an imbassador to Eome to promote a pacifica- ion. Gradually he was drawn into the war the side of the pope and Ferdinand, and English forces were sent to their assistance. Late in 1511 a league was formed against r rance by the pope, the emperor, Aragon, and Venice. Henry led a large army into France in 1513, after his fleet had been checked and the French had threatened the English coast, [aximilian I., emperor of Germany, served inder him as a volunteer. Great things were expected from this invasion, but were not ilized. The French were beaten in the bat- le of the spurs (at Guinegate), an unimpor- mt skirmish, remarkable only because Bayard ras then captured ; and the English took The- >uanne and Tournay. Henry then returned lome with most of his forces. Louis XII., loping to intimidate Henry, had called the luke of Suffolk, one of the nephews of Edward "V., to France, whereupon Henry caused Suf- Ik's brother to be put to death, after he had >ng been detained a prisoner. While the
 * ing was in France, James IV. of Scotland led

great army into England, which was totally lefeated at Flodden by the earl of Surrey, Sept. ), 1513, and the Scottish king slain. Being de- rted by his allies, Henry made peace with )uis XIL, who married his sister, Mary Tu- lor ; but the French king soon died, and Mary larried Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. 7olsey, whose career had commenced in the preceding reign, was now high in favor with the king, and his course on many occasions cesses of Francis I. in Italy alarmed Europe, id the German emperor sought to engage lenry to act against France by holding out lopes of being made his successor ; and Fran- jis, in retaliation, formed plans for an invasion " England in support of Suffolk's claim to the j throne. This pretender was an object of ter- ror to the English government until he was slain at the battle of Pavia. The successes of the Turks continuing to alarm the western na- tions, Henry listened to the pope's plans for a crusade. On the death of Maximilian I. Henry thought of becoming a competitor for the im- perial crown, but soon discovered that he had no chance of success. The election of Charles of Spain to the imperial throne caused Henry and Francis to become friendly, and in 1520 a meeting was arranged between them. Before it could be held, Charles V. visited England, and there gained the influence of Wolsey, by affect- ing to favor his aspirations to the popedom. Francis and Henry then met near Ardres, on territory belonging to the latter, though in France.' The meeting was so magnificent that the place of it was known as the field of the cloth of gold. Henry visited the emperor at Gravelines, where Charles completed his con- quest of Wolsey by conferring Castilian sees upon him. War breaking out between Charles and Francis, Henry was induced by Wolsey to favor the former, and to enter into an offensive alliance with him. In 1521 Henry received from Leo X. the title of defender of the faith, for having written a book against Luther and his doctrines. The same year occurred the ex- ecution of the duke of Buckingham, one of the greatest nobles of the realm, and descended in the female line from Edward III. His death was attributed to Wolsey, but it was due to the jealous rage of Henry, who could not bear about him any one who had, or could pretend to have, claims to the succession in the event of his dying without issue. The death of Leo X. and the elevation of Adrian VI. endangered the alliance between Charles V. and Henry, be- cause of Wolsey's disappointment ; but the em- peror visited England, soothed the cardinal, and prevailed upon the king to declare war against France. An English army, command- ed by Surrey, invaded France, but did nothing beyond burning and pillaging a few places of little note. Francis I. again called forth the pretender Suffolk, and threatened England with invasion ; and these threats, and the alarm they caused, show that the party of York was still formidable in that country, a fact that palliates many of the king's acts. Henry was a party to the conspiracy of the constable de Bourbon against Francis in 1523 ; and from this conspiracy he expected to become as pow- erful in France as Henry V. had been. But the failure of the plot ruined Bourbon, while an English army, commanded by Brandon, duke of Suffolk, performed as little in France as had been done by that of Surrey. The death of Adrian VI. in 1523 excited anew the hopes of Wolsey, but Charles V. threw his influence into the scale of Cardinal de' Medici, who be- came Clement VII. This disappointment de- termined Wolsey to withdraw his master from the imperial alliance ; but not until after the battle of Pavia was he able to accomplish his
 * ave much offence to the nobility. ' The suc-