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 HEEREN mology, and as director of the botanical gar- sn, which he helped to establish. He was kewise for upward of 20 years a member of e great council of Zurich. He has published Kafer der Schweiz (2 vols., Solothurn, 837-'40); Fauna Coleopterorum Helvetica (3 ols., Zurich, 1839-'41) ; Die Inselctenfauna Tertidrgebilde von Oeningen und von Ro- in Kroatien (3 vols., Leipsic, 1847-'53); tertiaria Helvetia (3 vols., Winterthur, 854-'6) ; Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten (Zu- sh, 1865); Die Urwelt der Schweiz (1869; ench translation by Demole, Geneva and 1, 1872); and Die fossile Flora der Po- Idnder (2 vols., Winterthur, 1861-'7). HEEREN, Arnold Hermann Lndwig, a German torian, born at Arbergen, near Bremen, Oct. 1760, died in Gottingen, March 7, 1842. studied at Bremen and at Gottingen under guidance of Heyne, whose daughter he af- inted professor of philosophy, and in 1801 history, at Gottingen. He was for some ie one of the editors of the BibliotheTc der ten Literatur und Kunst, and after the death J. G. Eichhorn in 1827 edited the Oottinger lehrte Anzeigen. The subject of his lectures the university was chiefly the history of reek and Roman antiquities and of literature, a principal merit of his numerous histori- writings consists in an original elucidation the commercial affairs and relations, as well of the origin and political development, of e ancient states. Besides the edition of Me- nder's De Encomiis (1785), and the Eclogcz ysicce et Ethicm of Stobseus (4 vols., 1792- 801), the following are his most important orks : Ideen uber die Politilc, den Verkehr nd den Handel der vornehmsten Vo'lker der Iten Welt (2 vols., l793-'6 ; 4th ed., 6 vols., 824-'6; the part relating to Greece transla- ed into English by George Bancroft, Boston, 824) ; Geschichte des Studiums der classischen ' teratur seit dem Wiederaufleben der Wissen- (2 vols., 1797-1802; 7th ed., 1822); 'andbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des Al- thums (1799; 5th ed., 1826; translated by ncroft, Northampton, 1828) ; Geschichte des ropdischen Staatensy stems und seiner Colo- ien (1809 ; 5th ed., 1830 ; translated by Ban- ft, Northampton, 1829); De Fontibus et uctoritate Vitarum Parallelarum Plutarchi 820); all of which were published in Got- where also a collection of his histori- works appeared in 15 volumes (1821-'6). mong his minor writings are sketches of Jo- nnes von Milller, Spittler, and Heyne, a ise on the influence of the Normans upon e French language and literature, and a dis- rtation on the crusades. His "Ideas" were anslated into English, and published at Ox- >rd by Talboys, under the title of " Historical earches." A uniform edition of his trans- d works, under the title of "Heeren's His- rical Researches," has been published by hn (7 vols., London, 1846-'54). 399 VOL. viii. 39 HEGEL 607 HEFELE, Karl Joseph Ton, a German historian, born at Unterkochen, Wurtemberg, March 15, 1809. He studied at Ellwangen and Ehingen graduated in 1834 at the university of Tubin- gen, and became in 1840 professor of theology there, lecturing successively on church history, Christian archaeology, and patristics. From 1842 to 1845 he was a member of the Wurtem- berg chamber of deputies. He was consecrated bishop of Rottenburg in 1869, and in the coun- cil of the Vatican maintained the inopportune- ness of defining the pope's official infallibility, but accepted the doctrine when it was defined. He has strenuously opposed the new legislation in Germany relating to the religious orders and the relations of church and state. His most important works are: Die Einfuhrung des Ghristenthums im sudwestlichen Deutschland (Tubingen, 1837) ; Patrum Apostolicorum Op- era (1839; 4th ed., 1855); Das Sendschreiben des Apostels Barnabas (1840); Der Cardinal Ximenes und die Tcirchlichen Zustdnde Spa- niens im 15. Jahrhundert (2 vols., 1844 ; 2d ed., 1851 ; English translation by Canon Dal ton, London, 1860); Chrysostomus- Postille, selec- tions from Chrysostom (1845-'57) ; Concilien- geschichte (7 vols., Freiburg, 1855-'74; Eng- lish translation of part i. by W. R. Clark, Edinburgh, 1871); Beitrdge zur Kirchenge- schichte, Archdologie und LiturgiTc (2 vols., 1864-'5) ; and Die Honorius-Frage (1870). HEGEL, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, a German philosopher, born in Stuttgart, Aug. 27, 1770, died in Berlin, Nov. 14, 1831. From his 8th to his 18th year he was thoroughly trained in philology, mathematics, and history, in the gymnasium of his native town. His scholar- ship was already productive. He began a sys- tem, which he never abandoned, of making and arranging copious extracts from all the books and even journals that he read ; and he was always a great reader of newspapers. In 1788 he became a student of theology at Tu- bingen, having a stipend on a ducal founda- tion. He heard Storr on dogmatics, Schnurrer in exegesis, Flatt in philosophy ; and was also well taught in botany, anatomy, and other sci- ences of observation. With some of the stu- dents he read Plato and Kant ; but his subse- quent philosophical fame took them by surprise. In 1790 Schelling, then 15 years old, went to Tubingen ; he and Hegel studied, talked, and roomed together, little aware of that strange destiny by which the younger became the leader of the elder, and the elder supplanted the younger, and the younger again succeed- ed the elder in the development of German idealism. After quitting the university, Hegel (like Kant and Fichte) was for a long time a tutor in private families ; from 1793 to 1796 at Bern in Switzerland, and from 1797 to 1800 in a more eligible position at Frankfort-on- the-Main. His studies meanwhile took a wide range. He read Thucydides, Montesquieu, Gibbon, and Hume, and thoroughly pondered the Greek and German metaphysics. He be-
 * ward married, and of Spittler, and was ap-