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 GYMNASTICS 355 ey are in fact no more than those usual in the ordinary exercise of the limbs. Callis- thenics, however, by reducing these to a sys- tem, insures an equal and regular action of the muscles, while the occupations or amusements of females are apt to effect the reverse. It is essential that all these exercises should be practised, if indoors, in well ventilated halls or apartments. The practical utility of all gymnastics is frequently diminished by monot- ony, the pupil becoming wearied with the uni- formity of the movements. Without the dis- cipline of a teacher, it is difficult to secure a long persistence in their use. It is well there- fore to vary them, or to associate with them as much as possible the idea of amusement. In fact, there is no better callisthenic appa- ratus than many of the ordinary playthings, such as the battledore and shuttlecock, the cup and ball, and the " graces." In modern callis- thenics, regulating the movements to the time of music is much employed, and is useful, as it relieves their monotony. Ling, the Swedish writer on gymnastics and callisthenics, has written enthusiastically upon the advantage of systematic muscular exercise in the cure of disease. Numerous ailments to which females are peculiarly liable are due to the neglect of rper physical training, and may doubtless relieved in many instances by the proper application of callisthenics. Most of these female disorders may be justly attributed to the weakness of the abdominal muscles, and a proper strengthening of these by exercise would no doubt remove the cause. It is evi- dent that callisthenics, so called, are almost identical with the lighter forms of regular gymnastic exercise, and are adapted to the male as well as to the female. Exhibitions of large classes, the movements being simultane- ous and performed to the time of appropriate music, are often quite graceful and entertain- ing. Systematic gymnastic or callisthenic ex- ercises are rarely if ever useful before the age of 12 or 14 years. Professional gymnasts, many of whom begin their training at a very early age, are seldom well formed men, frequently presenting extraordinary development of cer- tain muscles at the expense of others, which amounts almost to deformity. Before the age of 12 the games and pastimes of childhood gen- erally afford sufficient exercise ; at that age, however, the lighter gymnastics or callisthenics, under competent instruction, may be the first step in the full development of a muscular sys- tem, which moderate exercise will preserve in a robust condition throughout adult life. After the age of 35 even practised gymnasts should be careful in making extraordinary muscular efforts. At that time the ligaments are com- paratively stiff, and strains of the joints are apt to become troublesome and persistent. By per- sons of sedentary habits, gymnastic exercise is to be employed to secure health, and it is not desirable to carry training to the extent of re- ducing the adipose tissue to the minimum. A fair development of fat is normal in the adult, and the system is apt to become exhausted if kept too long at a high standard of muscular development. Persons who have an unusual tendency to fat should combine with other ex- ercise running, jumping on the spring-board, and movements which shake the body. These favor the absorption of unnecessary adipose tissue, especially in the covering of the ab- dominal organs, allow the diaphragm to play more freely, and give respiratory power or "wind." It is a good plan for the adult to use moderate exercise, which develops the muscular system generally, and to make one vigorous effort each day, such as lifting a heavy weight or raising a large dumb-bell. This gives nervous power, and enables one to easily put forth nearly all his strength in a single powerful effort, when this is required. It is not necessary for an adult, exercising simply for health, to cultivate excessive hardness of muscle ; and indeed the greatest strength is often found in muscles that are comparatively soft. One hour's honest exercise, followed by ablution, will usually suffice for the brain- worker; and this should produce prompt re- action, without a sense of exhaustion. Persons who take this amount of judicious exercise are often more powerful and have more endu- rance than the hard-worked laborer. There is no doubt that judicious and habitual exercise favors the elimination of effete matters from the organism, particularly by the lungs, skin, and kidneys, increases the activity of the nutrition of the muscular system, rendering the food more relishing, more easily digested, and better assimilated, and develops what is known as nerve power. When it is remember- ed that the muscles constitute the great bulk of the organism, it is evident that perfect health can only exist when they are properly developed. Active nutrition of the muscles, also, is unfavorable to the deposition of mor- bid matters, such as are found in tubercu- lous, cancerous, or scrofulous constitutions; and when exercise is combined with amusement and mental relaxation, the system is in the best condition to derive its full benefit. Ancient gymnastics are treated of in a few works: Plato, "Politics," book in., and "Laws," book viii. ; Galen, "On Preserving Health;" and Hieronymus Mercurialis, DeArte Gymnastica, book vi. (Venice, 1587). On modern gymnastics there are numerous trea- tises. Many German physicians have labored to raise gymnastics to the importance _ of a science, especially Dr. Schreber of Leipsic ; see his Kinesiatrilc (Leipsic, 1852) and Aerzt- licJie Zimmergymnastilc (5th ed., 1858). The more recent works published in the Uni- ted States and England are the following: Arthur and Charles Nahl, "Instructions in Gymnastics " (San Francisco, 1863); Watson, "Callisthenics and Gymnastics" (New York and Philadelphia, 1864); William Wood, "Man- ual of Physical Exercises" (New York, 1867);