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 winter grain is raised in the first year, spring grain in the second, and potatoes, pulse, or fodder in the third year; according to the second method, recommended by Thaer, a grain crop is always followed by a crop of fodder or pulse. In some of the northern states crops of grain are raised on a certain portion of the farm for several successive years, after which the field is allowed to lie fallow from three to seven years, according to the number of lots into which the farm is divided. In Mecklenburg agriculture approaches to horticulture, inasmuch as many different kinds of fruit are raised on little plots of ground, one by the side of another. The culture of forests is conducted upon a more scientific basis than in any other country. Having in former times thoughtlessly destroyed their forests, many German states have been compelled to replant them in order to satisfy the wants of agriculture and industry. In many states the forests mostly belong to government, and are as carefully kept as gardens; but even private owners are prohibited by law from wasting their forests without regard to the public good. The most extensive forests are found in central and southern Germany and in the eastern provinces of Prussia. The entire superficies of wood land in Germany is 52,939 sq. m., of which Prussia has 31,423, Bavaria 9,376, and Würtemberg about 2,296.—Of all European countries, Germany has the oldest manufactures. In the last century it had fallen in regard to the extent of its mechanical pursuits behind England and Belgium, but within 50 years it has advanced rapidly, and is now in a fair way to recover its former position. As early as the 13th century Germany was celebrated for its cloth and linen manufactures, its glass wares, carved and chiselled wares, &c. In the 14th century the silk manufacture was introduced, and the first paper mill was established as early as 1390. During the 15th century Germany became celebrated for its watch manufacture. Printing works were established at Augsburg and the lace manufacture introduced into Saxony in the 16th century. At that time Germany was to Europe, in regard to industry and commerce, what England is now. The thirty years' war destroyed all prosperity for a long time. At the beginning of the 18th century German industry again flourished, principally in consequence of the immigration of the Huguenots expelled from France. Frederick II. of Prussia and Joseph II. of Austria strove to raise it to its former eminence, but the French revolutionary wars blighted it once more. Since then it has recovered the lost ground, principally by means of the Zollverein, a commercial union of German states, which was inaugurated in 1819 and gradually joined by the majority of the states. According to the constitution of 1871, the German empire constitutes one customs and commercial union, except a few small communes which on account of their situation remain excluded from the common

line of customs, and the two Hanse towns, Hamburg and Bremen, which as free ports may remain outside of the union “until they themselves demand admittance.” Besides the states of the empire, the Zollverein embraces the grand duchy of Luxemburg and the Austrian commune of Jungholtz on the southern frontier of Bavaria. By the Zollverein free commerce was established among all its members, while a high tariff protected their industry against foreign competition. The progress made by Germany under this system is truly remarkable. While 50 years ago it had become preëminently an exporter of raw products of the soil, it is now one of the principal exporters of industrial products and importers of raw materials. The centres of German industry are the kingdom of Saxony, Westphalia, Rhenish Prussia, and Alsace-Lorraine. The linen manufacture stands highest in Saxony, Silesia, and Rhenish Prussia. The cotton industry of Germany has of late assumed very large dimensions. The number of spindles in 1869 was estimated at 5,000,000. The imports of cotton into the territory of the Zollverein were 2,271,000 cwt., of cotton yarn 313,264, and of cotton goods 28,700 cwt.; while on the other hand the exports of cotton were 936,397 cwt., of cotton yarn 66,861, and of cotton goods 198,562. How the woollen manufacture of Germany has been increased by the Zollverein may be seen from the fact that in 1825 Germany exported to England alone 280,000 cwt. of raw wool, while in 1869 the quantity of woollen yarn imported into Germany amounted to 300,000 cwt., and the quantity exported to 94,000, leaving not less than 206,000 cwt. as the net import of raw material. In the same year the quantity of woollen cloth exported amounted to 306,581 cwt. The German silk fabrics equal in quality the French and English, but are somewhat inferior in design. The principal silk manufactories are in Prussia (Berlin, Elberfeld, and Crefeld) and Saxony. The export of silk fabrics from Germany is nearly equal in amount to the domestic consumption. The paper manufacture has made considerable progress, although the finest qualities are still imported to some extent. In some fabrics of wood, as the choicest kinds of cabinet furniture, and all kinds of toys, Germany stands unequalled, and is a large exporter to all countries of the world. The iron manufacture has of late increased rapidly. The production of raw iron in the empire amounted in 1868 to 27,757,880 cwt. (21,065,199 in Prussia, 4,487,458 in Alsace-Lorraine, 961,382 in Bavaria), and in 1869 to about 33,000,000 cwt. The best iron and steel wares are manufactured in Rhenish Prussia and Saxony. The machine shops of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Baden rival, if they do not excel, the largest establishments of their kind in England. Other important branches of industry are gold and silver wares (Augsburg and Berlin), glass wares (Silesia), leather (Rhenish Prussia),