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 562 GALEN GALENA ministrator in 1662. The operations against the Netherlands opened auspiciously, but he was overwhelmingly defeated at Coevorden at the close of 1672; and the emperor of Germany having entered into a coalition with the elector of Brandenburg, the bishop hastened home to protect his own dominions. He succeeded, with Turenne, in occupying several Westphalian pos- sessions of the elector, but, with an army con- siderably reduced in numbers by defeats, he was but too glad to accept terms of peace in 1674, pledging himself to restore to the Dutch all the places which he had taken from them. Ever ready to join a fray, the warrior-bishop sided in 1675 with the emperor against France, and in August of the same year he joined Den- mark and Brandenburg in operations against Sweden. He personally conducted the op- erations against the duchies of Bremen and Verden, which then formed part of the latter kingdom, and in August, 1676, captured Stade, the capital of the duchy of Bremen; after which lie divided the conquered territory with the dukes of Brunswick, receiving the whole of Bremen and other localities. He now in- creased his military forces in order to furnish to Spain, in 1677, a contingent of 9,000 men against France, and to Denmark one of 5,000 against Sweden, while part of his troops re- enforced the imperialists on the Rhine and the Moselle. But a portion of his' soldiers having taken up winter quarters in East Friesland, complications arose in that region, again in- volving him in war; and he would have in- sisted upon a permanent occupation if the East Frieslanders had not induced him by consider- able bribes to evacuate their soil in 1678. He participated in the negotiation of peace at Nime- guen. Tucking has published Geschichte des Stifts Munster under Galen (Minister, 1865). GALEN (GALENTJS), Claudius, an ancient phy- sician, born in Pergamus in Mysia, A. D. 130, died, according to Suidas, in 200 or 201, but according to his Arabic and some other biogra- phers, from 10 to 18 years later. Galen at 15 studied logic and philosophy ; two years af- terward he began the study of medicine ; and at about the age of 20 he travelled into various countries to complete his education. He was absent from Pergamus nine years, and when he returned he was appointed city physician to the school of gladiators. Some popular com- motions having arisen a few years after his ap- pointment, he went to Rome, where he spent about four years, and acquired great reputa- tion for skill in anatomy and medicine. As soon as the troubles in Pergamus had passed away, Galen hastened back ; but hardly had he reached his destination when he was sum- moned by the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Verus to attend them at Aquileia where a pestilence raged in the camp. Verus died of apoplexy on the way to Rome, and Galen ac- companied Marcus Aurelius thither. When re- turning to the camp after the apotheosis of his colleague, Marcus Aurelius urged Galen to ac- company him, but he declined under pretence that ^Esculapius had enjoined him to remain. How long he sojourned in Rome during his second visit is uncertain, but while there he continually added to his fame by his lectures, writings, and practice. He ultimately returned to his native city, and died there. Galen was not only the most eminent physician, but also one of the most learned and accomplished men of his age ; and for more than 1,000 years after his death his authority in medical matters was regarded in Europe as almost supreme. He was a very voluminous writer on medical and philosophical subjects. There are still ex- tant 83 treatises of his, and 15 of his commen- taries on various works of Hippocrates, besides fragments of his lost works and writings falsely attributed to him. The best edition of his works is that by Ktihn (20 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1821-'33). Writings attributed to him were discovered and published in Paris by Minas in 1844, and by Daremberg in 1848. GALENA, sulphuret of lead, the ore which furnishes most of the lead of commerce. It occurs in highly crystalline masses, which sep- arate into cubical fragments. Its structure is also granular, and sometimes fibrous. Freshly fractured, it presents a brilliant lustre like polished steel, which changes by exposure to a dull lead-gray color. Its hardness is from 2 '5 to 2-75 ; specific gravity, 7'25 to 7'7. Its com- position, represented by the symbol PbS, is lead 86-6, sulphur 13'4; but it often contains other metals, as antimony, silver, zinc, iron, and copper, as well as the substance selenium. It is also largely intermixed with the earthy gan- gues that form the principal portion of the veins in which it is found. From these, and from the sulphurets of zinc and the pyritous copper and iron usually associated with the ore, it is separated as far as practicable before smelting by the processes of stamping or crushing, jigging, &c. (See LEAD, and MET- ALLURGY.) In some veins and beds it is fre- quently found in large groups of cubical crys- tals, which are yery free from foreign sub- stances. In this form it is met with in the fis- sures in the limestone of the lead region of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, imbedded in the clay with which the fissures are filled. Galena is a valuable ore for the silver it often contains, as well as for the lead. In reducing the ore by smelting, the silver all goes with the lead, which is run out ; and from this it is separated either by the process of cupellation, or parting by crystallization, or other method. The lead ores however do not all contain silver enough to render its extraction profitable, although the separation is so cheaply conducted that 3 oz. of silver to the ton of lead will pay for the operation. Galena rich in silver is a product of numerous veins in the granitic and meta- morphic rocks of New England and the Pacific states; but the more argentiferous it is, the less certain is the yield of the veins in quanti- ty, and few of this character have been found