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 FREDERICK (PEUSSIA) 457 fortnight later, and the whole of Saxony was reduced, and became virtually a part of Fred- erick's dominions. He levied troops and sup- plies ; and thus, within a few weeks, one of the confederates was made to turn his weapons against the others. The next campaign opened with the great battle of Prague, May 6, 1757. Frederick was victorious, but lost 12,000 men, and among them his general Schwerin. A second battle was fought and lost against Daun at Kolin, June 18. Frederick abandoned Bohemia. French troops invaded Prussia, and his army lost confidence. French, Swedes, and Russians were marching upon Berlin; and Frederick, mourning the death of his mother, whom he tenderly loved, provided himself with poison, and meditated suicide. He marched from Bohemia against the French, and with half their numbers defeated them at Rossbach, and took 7,000 prisoners (Nov. 5). He now turned against the Austrians, who had entered Berlin, and captured Schweidnitz and Breslau. On Dec. 5, at Leuthen, with 30,000 men, he attacked 80,000, killed or captured 27,000, and took 130 guns, 50 standards, and 4,000 wagons. Early in 1758, having pre- viously recovered Breslau, he was again ready for action, recaptured Schweidnitz, and with 37,000 troops fought almost hand to hand with 60,000 Russians at Zorndorf (Aug. 25). It was the fiercest and bloodiest battle of the war. Frederick ordered that no quarter should be given, so enraged was he with the devasta- tions committed by the invaders ; and 19,000 Russians and 11,000 Prussians lay upon the field, dead or wounded, at the close of this fear- ful day. The Russians abandoned Prussia, and Frederick marched into Saxony. He had beaten French, Austrian, and Russian armies in turn, each with more than double his force ; but close upon these triumphs followed a chain of disasters which would have overthrown any other commander. At dead of night he was surprised and terribly defeated by Daun at Hochkirch (Oct. 14), but rallying in an in- credibly short time he rescued Dresden from an overwhelming army of Austrians, and went into winter quarters at Breslau. The year 1759 saw the Austrians overrunning Saxony, Rus- sians victorious upon the Oder, Frederick ut- terly routed by Soltikoff and Laudon at Kuners- dorf, Aug. 12 (where he lost two thirds of his troops), and Berlin saved only by the king's mi- raculous energy. Dresden was taken by the troops of the empire, and near it Gen. Fink surrendered 12,000 Prussians. The fifth year saw the capital in the hands of the Russians, while Frederick won great battles at Liegnitz, Aug. 15, 1760, and Torgau, Nov. 3, the one over Laudon, and the other over Daun. The sixth year was also unfavorable, but he still fought on. The circle seemed to be closing around him, and he grew savage with despair. England, after the death of George II., desert- ed him, but Russia, on the death of Elizabeth (1762), withdrew from the coalition. Fred- erick broke into Silesia and defeated the Aus- trians at Burkersdorf, and his brother Henry was successful at Freiberg. France withdrew her armies, declaring future neutrality; and Prussians and Austrians stood alone against each other. The empress now gave way, and in February, 1763, peace Was signed at Huberts- burg, leaving Frederick in possession of Silesia, the sole object, short of saving Prussia itself, for which he had fought. After an absence of eight years he reentered Berlin in triumph. He had proved himself the greatest commander of his age, although he owed many a defeat to his own rashness, and many a victory to such gen- erals as Ferdinand of Brunswick, Schwerin Seydlitz, Ziethen, and Prince Henry. But his capital had been more than once plundered ; the population had suffered frightfully. He found the number of his subjects diminished by one tenth ; a sixth of the male able-bodied adults had died on the field of battle. Cossacks and Croats had slaughtered young and old, wo- men and children. Fields were unsown ; vil- lages and hamlets were deserts. But, say his- torians, Frederick did not owe a dollar. His first object was the thorough restoration and reorganization of the army. During every moment of the 23 remaining years of his life, he was armed at all points. His energies meanwhile were employed with equal devo- tion in the restoration of his country. The corn which had been provided for the next campaign was bestowed upon the destitute. In Silesia taxes were remitted for six months; in Pome'rania and New Brandenburg for two years. Immense sums of money were ex- pended in agricultural and industrial 'improve- ments; in all, during the remainder of his reign, 24,000,000 thalers. To meet these and other similar ends, the most rigid economy was practised. The royal household was so frugal that the king saved annually from the sum appropriated to his court nearly 1,000,000 thalers. His envoys in England and France had salaries less than $5,000 a year. The king himself had but one fine dress during the re- mainder of his life. Shabby old garments and snuffy yellow waistcoats were his daily wear ; and when it was found at his death that he did not possess a single decent shirt, he was buried in one belonging to his valet de chambre. The only exception to his economy was caused by his love of building. He was himself singularly industrious. He spent 20 hours out of the 24 in some active bodily or mental employment. He rose at four, and retired at midnight. Din- ner was the scene of intellectual activity, a school of wit and discussion. Religious per- secution was unknown in his dominions ; per- fect order reigned throughout ; property was secure ; speech and the press were free. Lam- poons and libels on himself he wholly disre- garded. " My people and I," he said, " under- stand each other. They are to say what they like, and I am to do what I like." Cheap and speedy justice was administered. In commer-