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 FRANCE 375 priests holding for life, or to ministers remov- able at will by the bishops. The former are called cures inamovibles, the permanency of their office being recognized by the civil au- thority ; the latter cures amovibles. The num- ber of priests in 1872 exceeded 40,000 ; that ot convents, 2,600. Each diocese has a petit semi- naire or college, where the classics, mathematics, natural and mental philosophy are taught ; and a grand seminaire, or theological seminary. The French Protestants mostly belong to the Lutheran and Reformed or Calvinistic church- es, both of which are recognized by the state, which annually appropriates a sum for their support. The Lutherans were greatly dimin- ished in number by the cession of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany ; their largest congrega- tions are now found in the departments of Doubs and Seine. In 1872 they had 69 pastors, and about 74,000 church members, with pres- byterial councils and 9 consistories, under the superintendence of a director at Paris. The Calvinists, who mostly inhabit the departments of Seine, Gard, Charente-Infe'rieure, Ardeche, DrOme, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne, Lot-et-Garon- ne, Lozere, and Deux-Sevres, have 596 church pastors, presbyterial councils, 103 consistories, a central council sitting at Paris, and a theologi- cal college at Montauban. The population con- nected with this church is estimated at 483,000. Of the Protestant churches which receive no government support, the more important are the following : the union of evangelical church- es, founded in 1849, with 45 churches and about 3,000 members in 1872 ; the Methodists, with 24 ministers and 1,916 members; and the Baptists, with 8 congregations and about 300 members. The Jews, numbering about 46,000, who are found principally in the large towns of the east and south, have synagogues at Paris, Nancy, Bordeaux, and Marseilles, with a cen- tral council in the capital. The clergy of the Catholic church, which previous to the French revolution was the holder of fully one th;rd of the landed property, and had a yearly income amounting to very near $40,000,000, now re- ceive a salary, the aggregate amount of which in the budget of 1873 was 51,000,000 fr. The government has a direct and supreme control over public instruction, through the instrumen- tality of that powerful institution known as the university of France, and the combined action of its civil officers in the administration there- of. The minister of public instruction, placed at the head of the whole organization, is assist- ed by an imperial council and a body of 18 in- spectors general. The country is divided into 15 districts, each with its academy ; the seats of these institutions are at Aix, Besancon, Bor- deaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Douai, Greno- ble, Lyons, Montpellier, Nancy, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse. Each academy is gov- erned by a rector, with an academy inspector for every department. The rector is assisted by an academical council, of which he is the presiding officer ; the academy inspector, by a departmental council presided over by the prefect. Three grades of instruction are re- cognized, superior, secondary, and primary. Superior instruction, embracing the highest branches of human knowledge only, is given by a number of faculties, the professorships of which are intrusted to men of tried ca- pacity and talent. There are 6 faculties of theology (all Catholic), 12 of law, 2 of med- icine, 15 of science, and 15 of letters. Sec- ondary instruction is supplied by secondary schools of medicine and pharmacy, national lyceums and communal colleges, under-semi- naries, chiefly for theological students, and pri- vate institutions and schools. In 1873 there were 78 lyceums, 236 communal colleges, 19 pro- fessional schools, and a large number of pri- vate institutions. The aggregate number of scholars in the public institutions was about 70,000, the under-seminaries not included. The above two branches of public instruc- tion are under the special control of the rectors and academy inspectors. The third, primary instruction, is especially intrusted to the care of the prefects, aided by special in- spectors. For primary instruction there are about 69,000 schools established all over the country. These are supported by the com- munes ; part of their pupils are admitted free of expense ; the others pay a trifling annual charge. Asylums for children complete the establishments of primary instruction. Nor- mal schools for the education of primary teachers exist in nearly all the departments, and have worked satisfactorily. The majority of the professors in the national lyceums are educated at the superior normal school in Paris. Candidates for the Catholic priesthood are educated in theological seminaries or grands seminaires under the exclusive control of the Catholic bishops ; and ministers in the Protestant seminary at Montauban. These schools are of course out of the pale of the university. So are also the polytechnic school, where naval, military, and civil engineers, ar- tillery officers, &c., are educated ; the military schools of St. Cyr, La Fleche, and Saumur; the practical schools for artillery and engineer- ing, &c. ; all of which are under the super- vision of the minister of war. Some other practical schools connected with the navy, civil engineering, the mines, manufactures, forests, &c., are respectively controlled by the ministers to which they more properly belong. The central school of art and manufactures at Paris, a dependency of the ministry of public works, deserves particular notice on account of its general usefulness. Of similar impor- tance are the college de France, where lectures are delivered on the highest topics of science and literature ; the museum of natural history, an admirable collection of animal, vegetable, and mineral wealth, connected with the jardin des plantes ; and the lectures on oriental lan- guages delivered at the national library. Above all these learned institutions stand the French